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      Muddying the Waters: A New Area of Concern for Drinking Water Contamination in Cameroon

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          Abstract

          In urban Maroua, Cameroon, improved drinking water sources are available to a large majority of the population, yet this water is frequently distributed through informal distribution systems and stored in home containers ( canaries), leaving it vulnerable to contamination. We assessed where contamination occurs within the distribution system, determined potential sources of environmental contamination, and investigated potential pathogens. Gastrointestinal health status (785 individuals) was collected via health surveys. Drinking water samples were collected from drinking water sources and canaries. Escherichia coli and total coliform levels were evaluated and molecular detection was performed to measure human-associated faecal marker, HF183; tetracycline-resistance gene, tetQ; Campylobacter spp.; and Staphylococcus aureus. Statistical analyses were performed to evaluate the relationship between microbial contamination and gastrointestinal illness. Canari samples had higher levels of contamination than source samples. HF183 and tetQ were detected in home and source samples. An inverse relationship was found between tetQ and E. coli. Presence of tetQ with lower E. coli levels increased the odds of reported diarrhoeal illness than E. coli levels alone. Further work is warranted to better assess the relationship between antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and other pathogens in micro-ecosystems within canaries and this relationship’s impact on drinking water quality.

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          Most cited references37

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          Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality

          (2011)
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            Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part I: recent trends and current status.

            The global problem of antimicrobial resistance is particularly pressing in developing countries, where the infectious disease burden is high and cost constraints prevent the widespread application of newer, more expensive agents. Gastrointestinal, respiratory, sexually transmitted, and nosocomial infections are leading causes of disease and death in the developing world, and management of all these conditions has been critically compromised by the appearance and rapid spread of resistance. In this first part of the review, we have summarised the present state of resistance in these infections from the available data. Even though surveillance of resistance in many developing countries is suboptimal, the general picture is one of accelerating rates of resistance spurred by antimicrobial misuse and shortfalls in infection control and public health. Reservoirs for resistance may be present in healthy human and animal populations. Considerable economic and health burdens emanate from bacterial resistance, and research is needed to accurately quantify the problem and propose and evaluate practicable solutions. In part II, to be published next month, we will review potential containment strategies that could address this burgeoning problem.
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              Recent advances in quantitative PCR (qPCR) applications in food microbiology.

              Molecular methods are being increasingly applied to detect, quantify and study microbial populations in food or during food processes. Among these methods, PCR-based techniques have been the subject of considerable focus and ISO guidelines have been established for the detection of food-borne pathogens. More particularly, real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) is considered as a method of choice for the detection and quantification of microorganisms. One of its major advantages is to be faster than conventional culture-based methods. It is also highly sensitive, specific and enables simultaneous detection of different microorganisms. Application of reverse-transcription-qPCR (RT-qPCR) to study population dynamics and activities through quantification of gene expression in food, by contrast with the use of qPCR, is just beginning. Provided that appropriate controls are included in the analyses, qPCR and RT-qPCR appear to be highly accurate and reliable for quantification of genes and gene expression. This review addresses some important technical aspects to be considered when using these techniques. Recent applications of qPCR and RT-qPCR in food microbiology are given. Some interesting applications such as risk analysis or studying the influence of industrial processes on gene expression and microbial activity are reported. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: External Editor
                Journal
                Int J Environ Res Public Health
                Int J Environ Res Public Health
                ijerph
                International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
                MDPI
                1661-7827
                1660-4601
                28 November 2014
                December 2014
                : 11
                : 12
                : 12454-12472
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Division of Environmental Health Sciences, the Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mails: jessicamorganhealy@ 123456gmail.com (J.M.H.P.); bisesi.12@ 123456osu.edu (M.B.)
                [2 ]Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Maroua, Maroua BP 46, Far North Region, Cameroon; E-Mail: mouharabi@ 123456yahoo.fr
                [3 ]Department of Food Science and Technology, the Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mail: lee.5178@ 123456osu.edu
                [4 ]Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, the Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mail: garabed.1@ 123456osu.edu
                [5 ]Department of Anthropology, the Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mails: moritz.42@ 123456osu.edu (M.M.); piperata.1@ 123456osu.edu (B.P.)
                [6 ]Department of Mathematics, the Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; E-Mail: tien.20@ 123456osu.edu
                Author notes
                [†]

                These authors contributed equally to this work.

                [* ]Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: lee.3598@ 123456osu.edu ; Tel.: +1-614-292-5546; Fax: +1-614-293-7710.
                Article
                ijerph-11-12454
                10.3390/ijerph111212454
                4276624
                25464137
                26ebf955-d610-410f-8d40-76d0d6e7a977
                © 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

                This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 05 September 2014
                : 05 November 2014
                : 14 November 2014
                Categories
                Article

                Public health
                diarrhoeal illness,drinking water quality,microbial source tracking,drinking water storage,drinking water distribution

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