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      The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs.

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          Abstract

          Entropy is a dimensionless quantity that is used for measuring uncertainty about the state of a system but it can also imply physical qualities, where high entropy is synonymous with high disorder. Entropy is applied here in the context of states of consciousness and their associated neurodynamics, with a particular focus on the psychedelic state. The psychedelic state is considered an exemplar of a primitive or primary state of consciousness that preceded the development of modern, adult, human, normal waking consciousness. Based on neuroimaging data with psilocybin, a classic psychedelic drug, it is argued that the defining feature of "primary states" is elevated entropy in certain aspects of brain function, such as the repertoire of functional connectivity motifs that form and fragment across time. Indeed, since there is a greater repertoire of connectivity motifs in the psychedelic state than in normal waking consciousness, this implies that primary states may exhibit "criticality," i.e., the property of being poised at a "critical" point in a transition zone between order and disorder where certain phenomena such as power-law scaling appear. Moreover, if primary states are critical, then this suggests that entropy is suppressed in normal waking consciousness, meaning that the brain operates just below criticality. It is argued that this entropy suppression furnishes normal waking consciousness with a constrained quality and associated metacognitive functions, including reality-testing and self-awareness. It is also proposed that entry into primary states depends on a collapse of the normally highly organized activity within the default-mode network (DMN) and a decoupling between the DMN and the medial temporal lobes (which are normally significantly coupled). These hypotheses can be tested by examining brain activity and associated cognition in other candidate primary states such as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and early psychosis and comparing these with non-primary states such as normal waking consciousness and the anaesthetized state.

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          Most cited references112

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          Theta oscillations in the hippocampus.

          Theta oscillations represent the "on-line" state of the hippocampus. The extracellular currents underlying theta waves are generated mainly by the entorhinal input, CA3 (Schaffer) collaterals, and voltage-dependent Ca(2+) currents in pyramidal cell dendrites. The rhythm is believed to be critical for temporal coding/decoding of active neuronal ensembles and the modification of synaptic weights. Nevertheless, numerous critical issues regarding both the generation of theta oscillations and their functional significance remain challenges for future research.
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            Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance.

            Although psilocybin has been used for centuries for religious purposes, little is known scientifically about its acute and persisting effects. This double-blind study evaluated the acute and longer-term psychological effects of a high dose of psilocybin relative to a comparison compound administered under comfortable, supportive conditions. The participants were hallucinogen-naïve adults reporting regular participation in religious or spiritual activities. Two or three sessions were conducted at 2-month intervals. Thirty volunteers received orally administered psilocybin (30 mg/70 kg) and methylphenidate hydrochloride (40 mg/70 kg) in counterbalanced order. To obscure the study design, six additional volunteers received methylphenidate in the first two sessions and unblinded psilocybin in a third session. The 8-h sessions were conducted individually. Volunteers were encouraged to close their eyes and direct their attention inward. Study monitors rated volunteers' behavior during sessions. Volunteers completed questionnaires assessing drug effects and mystical experience immediately after and 2 months after sessions. Community observers rated changes in the volunteer's attitudes and behavior. Psilocybin produced a range of acute perceptual changes, subjective experiences, and labile moods including anxiety. Psilocybin also increased measures of mystical experience. At 2 months, the volunteers rated the psilocybin experience as having substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance and attributed to the experience sustained positive changes in attitudes and behavior consistent with changes rated by community observers. When administered under supportive conditions, psilocybin occasioned experiences similar to spontaneously occurring mystical experiences. The ability to occasion such experiences prospectively will allow rigorous scientific investigations of their causes and consequences.
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              Competition between functional brain networks mediates behavioral variability.

              Increased intraindividual variability (IIV) is a hallmark of disorders of attention. Recent work has linked these disorders to abnormalities in a "default mode" network, comprising brain regions routinely deactivated during goal-directed cognitive tasks. Findings from a study of the neural basis of attentional lapses suggest that a competitive relationship between the "task-negative" default mode network and regions of a "task-positive" attentional network is a potential locus of dysfunction in individuals with increased IIV. Resting state studies have shown that this competitive relationship is intrinsically represented in the brain, in the form of a negative correlation or antiphase relationship between spontaneous activity occurring in the two networks. We quantified the negative correlation between these two networks in 26 subjects, during active (Eriksen flanker task) and resting state scans. We hypothesized that the strength of the negative correlation is an index of the degree of regulation of activity in the default mode and task-positive networks and would be positively related to consistent behavioral performance. We found that the strength of the correlation between the two networks varies across individuals. These individual differences appear to be behaviorally relevant, as interindividual variation in the strength of the correlation was significantly related to individual differences in response time variability: the stronger the negative correlation (i.e., the closer to 180 degrees antiphase), the less variable the behavioral performance. This relationship was moderately consistent across resting and task conditions, suggesting that the measure indexes moderately stable individual differences in the integrity of functional brain networks. We discuss the implications of these findings for our understanding of the behavioral significance of spontaneous brain activity, in both healthy and clinical populations.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Front Hum Neurosci
                Frontiers in human neuroscience
                Frontiers Media SA
                1662-5161
                1662-5161
                2014
                : 8
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Imperial College London London, UK.
                [2 ] C3NL, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London London, UK.
                [3 ] Department of Computing, Imperial College London London, UK.
                [4 ] The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park Oxford, UK.
                [5 ] Neurology Department and Brain Imaging Center, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
                [6 ] Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET) Buenos Aires, Argentina.
                Article
                10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020
                3909994
                24550805
                434db092-09da-4fd9-8cce-49a6c892bcb5
                History

                5-HT2A receptor,REM sleep,consciousness,criticality,default mode network,entropy,metastability,serotonin

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