Factors influencing skeletal maturation at diagnosis of paediatric Cushing's disease.

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Abstract

Growth retardation is a recognised complication of paediatric Cushing's disease (CD), but there are few published data on skeletal maturation at diagnosis. We assessed factors contributing to skeletal maturation in patients with paediatric CD.

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Androgens and bone.

Claes Ohlsson, K Lindberg, Steven Boonen … (2004)

Loss of estrogens or androgens increases the rate of bone remodeling by removing restraining effects on osteoblastogenesis and osteoclastogenesis, and also causes a focal imbalance between resorption and formation by prolonging the lifespan of osteoclasts and shortening the lifespan of osteoblasts. Conversely, androgens, as well as estrogens, maintain cancellous bone mass and integrity, regardless of age or sex. Although androgens, via the androgen receptor (AR), and estrogens, via the estrogen receptors (ERs), can exert these effects, their relative contribution remains uncertain. Recent studies suggest that androgen action on cancellous bone depends on (local) aromatization of androgens into estrogens. However, at least in rodents, androgen action on cancellous bone can be directly mediated via AR activation, even in the absence of ERs. Androgens also increase cortical bone size via stimulation of both longitudinal and radial growth. First, androgens, like estrogens, have a biphasic effect on endochondral bone formation: at the start of puberty, sex steroids stimulate endochondral bone formation, whereas they induce epiphyseal closure at the end of puberty. Androgen action on the growth plate is, however, clearly mediated via aromatization in estrogens and interaction with ERalpha. Androgens increase radial growth, whereas estrogens decrease periosteal bone formation. This effect of androgens may be important because bone strength in males seems to be determined by relatively higher periosteal bone formation and, therefore, greater bone dimensions, relative to muscle mass at older age. Experiments in mice again suggest that both the AR and ERalpha pathways are involved in androgen action on radial bone growth. ERbeta may mediate growth-limiting effects of estrogens in the female but does not seem to be involved in the regulation of bone size in males. In conclusion, androgens may protect men against osteoporosis via maintenance of cancellous bone mass and expansion of cortical bone. Such androgen action on bone is mediated by the AR and ERalpha.

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Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: an update.

Gherardo Mazziotti, Alberto Angeli, John Bilezikian … (2015)

Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis occurs in two phases: a rapid, early phase in which bone mineral density is reduced, possibly as a result of excessive bone resorption, and a slower, progressive phase in which bone mineral density declines because of impaired bone formation. Although the indirect effects of glucocorticoids on bone are evident, their direct effects on osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteocytes are primarily operative in the pathogenesis of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. The management of patients exposed to glucocorticoids includes general health measures, sufficient calcium and vitamin D, and reducing the therapeutic regimen to the minimal effective dose. The gold standard in the pharmacological treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis in postmenopausal women involves the use of bisphosphonates, which should be started soon after beginning chronic glucocorticoid therapy. Anabolic and alternative therapeutic strategies are currently under investigation in glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis.