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      Bradford Hill’s criteria, emerging zoonoses, and One Health

      review-article
      a , * , b
      Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health
      Atlantis Press
      Disease causation, Emerging zoonoses, One Health

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          Abstract

          Zoonoses constitute more than 60% of infectious diseases and 75% of emerging infectious diseases. Inappropriate overemphasis of specialization of disciplines has ignored public health. Identifying the causes of disease and determining how exposures are related to outcomes in “emerging zoonoses” affecting multiple species are considered to be the hallmarks of public health research and practice that compels the adoption of “One Health”. The interactions within and among populations of vertebrates in the causation and transmissions of emerging zoonotic diseases are inherently dynamic, interdependent, and systems based. Disease causality theories have moved from one or several agents causing disease in a single species, to one infectious agent causing disease in multiple species-emerging zoonoses. Identification of the causative pathogen components or structures, elucidating the mechanisms of species specificity, and understanding the natural conditions of emergence would facilitate better derivation of the causal mechanism. Good quality evidence on causation in emerging zoonoses affecting multiple species makes a strong recommendation under the One Health approach for disease prevention and control from diagnostic tests, treatment, antimicrobial resistance, preventive vaccines, and evidence informed health policies. In the tenets of One Health, alliances work best when the legitimate interests of the different partners combine to prevent and control emerging zoonoses.

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          Most cited references13

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          Causation and causal inference in epidemiology.

          Concepts of cause and causal inference are largely self-taught from early learning experiences. A model of causation that describes causes in terms of sufficient causes and their component causes illuminates important principles such as multi-causality, the dependence of the strength of component causes on the prevalence of complementary component causes, and interaction between component causes. Philosophers agree that causal propositions cannot be proved, and find flaws or practical limitations in all philosophies of causal inference. Hence, the role of logic, belief, and observation in evaluating causal propositions is not settled. Causal inference in epidemiology is better viewed as an exercise in measurement of an effect rather than as a criterion-guided process for deciding whether an effect is present or not.
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            Population biology of multihost pathogens.

            The majority of pathogens, including many of medical and veterinary importance, can infect more than one species of host. Population biology has yet to explain why perceived evolutionary advantages of pathogen specialization are, in practice, outweighed by those of generalization. Factors that predispose pathogens to generalism include high levels of genetic diversity and abundant opportunities for cross-species transmission, and the taxonomic distributions of generalists and specialists appear to reflect these factors. Generalism also has consequences for the evolution of virulence and for pathogen epidemiology, making both much less predictable. The evolutionary advantages and disadvantages of generalism are so finely balanced that even closely related pathogens can have very different host range sizes.
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              Is Open Access

              Human viruses: discovery and emergence

              There are 219 virus species that are known to be able to infect humans. The first of these to be discovered was yellow fever virus in 1901, and three to four new species are still being found every year. Extrapolation of the discovery curve suggests that there is still a substantial pool of undiscovered human virus species, although an apparent slow-down in the rate of discovery of species from different families may indicate bounds to the potential range of diversity. More than two-thirds of human viruses can also infect non-human hosts, mainly mammals, and sometimes birds. Many specialist human viruses also have mammalian or avian origins. Indeed, a substantial proportion of mammalian viruses may be capable of crossing the species barrier into humans, although only around half of these are capable of being transmitted by humans and around half again of transmitting well enough to cause major outbreaks. A few possible predictors of species jumps can be identified, including the use of phylogenetically conserved cell receptors. It seems almost inevitable that new human viruses will continue to emerge, mainly from other mammals and birds, for the foreseeable future. For this reason, an effective global surveillance system for novel viruses is needed.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                J Epidemiol Glob Health
                J Epidemiol Glob Health
                Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health
                Atlantis Press
                2210-6006
                2210-6014
                14 November 2015
                September 2016
                14 November 2015
                : 6
                : 3
                : 125-129
                Affiliations
                [a ]College of Health Sciences, University of Bahrain, P.O. Box-32038, Bahrain
                [b ]Pediatrics Department, American Mission Hospital, Manama, P.O. Box-1, Bahrain
                Author notes
                [* ]Corresponding author at: Head, Public Health Program, College of Health Sciences, University of Bahrain, P.O. Box-32038, Bahrain. agvaithinathan@ 123456uob.edu.bh
                Article
                S2210-6006(15)30048-4
                10.1016/j.jegh.2015.10.002
                7104114
                26589252
                077fe2c4-2153-43b1-beb0-79c586e0b56e
                © 2015 Ministry of Health, Saudi Arabia. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

                Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.

                History
                : 1 September 2015
                : 19 October 2015
                Categories
                Article

                disease causation,emerging zoonoses,one health
                disease causation, emerging zoonoses, one health

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