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      Maternal weight gain in pregnancy and risk of obesity among offspring: a systematic review.

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          Abstract

          To systematically review the evidence from prospective and retrospective cohort studies on the association between gestational weight gain (GWG) and offspring's body weight.

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          Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement.

          David Moher, Alessandro Liberati, Jennifer Tetzlaff … (2009)
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            Childhood obesity and adult morbidities.

            Frank M. Biro, Michelle Wien (2010)
            The prevalence and severity of obesity have increased in recent years, likely the result of complex interactions between genes, dietary intake, physical activity, and the environment. The expression of genes favoring the storage of excess calories as fat, which have been selected for over many millennia and are relatively static, has become maladaptive in a rapidly changing environment that minimizes opportunities for energy expenditure and maximizes opportunities for energy intake. The consequences of childhood and adolescent obesity include earlier puberty and menarche in girls, type 2 diabetes and increased incidence of the metabolic syndrome in youth and adults, and obesity in adulthood. These changes are associated with cardiovascular disease as well as with several cancers in adults, likely through insulin resistance and production of inflammatory cytokines. Although concerns have arisen regarding environmental exposures, there have been no formal expert recommendations. Currently, the most important factors underlying the obesity epidemic are the current opportunities for energy intake coupled with limited energy expenditure.
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              Fetal origins of obesity.

              Emily Oken, Matthew Gillman (2003)
              The worldwide epidemic of obesity continues unabated. Obesity is notoriously difficult to treat, and, thus, prevention is critical. A new paradigm for prevention, which evolved from the notion that environmental factors in utero may influence lifelong health, has emerged in recent years. A large number of epidemiological studies have demonstrated a direct relationship between birth weight and BMI attained in later life. Although the data are limited by lack of information on potential confounders, these associations seem robust. Possible mechanisms include lasting changes in proportions of fat and lean body mass, central nervous system appetite control, and pancreatic structure and function. Additionally, lower birth weight seems to be associated with later risk for central obesity, which also confers increased cardiovascular risk. This association may be mediated through changes in the hypothalamic pituitary axis, insulin secretion and sensing, and vascular responsiveness. The combination of lower birth weight and higher attained BMI is most strongly associated with later disease risk. We are faced with the seeming paradox of increased adiposity at both ends of the birth weight spectrum-higher BMI with higher birth weight and increased central obesity with lower birth weight. Future research on molecular genetics, intrauterine growth, growth trajectories after birth, and relationships of fat and lean mass will elucidate relationships between early life experiences and later body proportions. Prevention of obesity starting in childhood is critical and can have lifelong, perhaps multigenerational, impact.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): J Obes
                Title: Journal of obesity
                Publisher: Hindawi Limited
                ISSN (Electronic): 2090-0716
                ISSN (Print): 2090-0708
                Publication date (Electronic): 2014
                Volume: 2014
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Exercise Science, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
                [2 ] Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, 915 Greene Street, Room 459 Discovery Building, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
                [3 ] Nutrition Obesity Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA.
                Article
                DOI: 10.1155/2014/524939
                PMC ID: 4202338
                PubMed ID: 25371815
                SO-VID: fe64ab1c-d4e4-485d-b93e-e7ce03011840
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