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      Evolving treatment approaches for the management of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer - role of radium-223.

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          Abstract

          Radium-223 is a first-in-class alpha particle-emitting radiopharmaceutical approved for the treatment of bone metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Radium-223 is administered intravenously with no requirement for complex shielding and specifically targets areas of bone metastasis. In a randomized placebo-controlled Phase III study, treatment with radium-223 was shown to improve overall survival, time to skeletal-related events, and health-related quality of life. Apart from radium-223, the cytotoxic chemotherapy agents docetaxel and cabazitaxel, androgen biosynthesis inhibitor abiraterone acetate, novel anti-androgen enzalutamide, and immunotherapy sipuleucel-T have also been shown to improve survival of men with advanced prostate cancer in Phase III trials. This review will outline current treatment approaches for advanced prostate cancer with a focus on the role of radium-223 in changing treatment paradigms.

          Most cited references28

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          Maintenance of intratumoral androgens in metastatic prostate cancer: a mechanism for castration-resistant tumor growth.

          Therapy for advanced prostate cancer centers on suppressing systemic androgens and blocking activation of the androgen receptor (AR). Despite anorchid serum androgen levels, nearly all patients develop castration-resistant disease. We hypothesized that ongoing steroidogenesis within prostate tumors and the maintenance of intratumoral androgens may contribute to castration-resistant growth. Using mass spectrometry and quantitative reverse transcription-PCR, we evaluated androgen levels and transcripts encoding steroidogenic enzymes in benign prostate tissue, untreated primary prostate cancer, metastases from patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer, and xenografts derived from castration-resistant metastases. Testosterone levels within metastases from anorchid men [0.74 ng/g; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 0.59-0.89] were significantly higher than levels within primary prostate cancers from untreated eugonadal men (0.23 ng/g; 95% CI, 0.03-0.44; P < 0.0001). Compared with primary prostate tumors, castration-resistant metastases displayed alterations in genes encoding steroidogenic enzymes, including up-regulated expression of FASN, CYP17A1, HSD3B1, HSD17B3, CYP19A1, and UGT2B17 and down-regulated expression of SRD5A2 (P < 0.001 for all). Prostate cancer xenografts derived from castration-resistant tumors maintained similar intratumoral androgen levels when passaged in castrate compared with eugonadal animals. Metastatic prostate cancers from anorchid men express transcripts encoding androgen-synthesizing enzymes and maintain intratumoral androgens at concentrations capable of activating AR target genes and maintaining tumor cell survival. We conclude that intracrine steroidogenesis may permit tumors to circumvent low levels of circulating androgens. Maximal therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer will require novel agents capable of inhibiting intracrine steroidogenic pathways within the prostate tumor microenvironment.
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            Androgen levels increase by intratumoral de novo steroidogenesis during progression of castration-resistant prostate cancer.

            Although systemic androgen deprivation prolongs life in advanced prostate cancer, remissions are temporary because patients almost uniformly progress to a state of a castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) as indicated by recurring PSA. This complex process of progression does not seem to be stochastic as the timing and phenotype are highly predictable, including the observation that most androgen-regulated genes are reactivated despite castrate levels of serum androgens. Recent evidence indicates that intraprostatic levels of androgens remain moderately high following systemic androgen deprivation therapy, whereas the androgen receptor (AR) remains functional, and silencing the AR expression following castration suppresses tumor growth and blocks the expression of genes known to be regulated by androgens. From these observations, we hypothesized that CRPC progression is not independent of androgen-driven activity and that androgens may be synthesized de novo in CRPC tumors leading to AR activation. Using the LNCaP xenograft model, we showed that tumor androgens increase during CRPC progression in correlation to PSA up-regulation. We show here that all enzymes necessary for androgen synthesis are expressed in prostate cancer tumors and some seem to be up-regulated during CRPC progression. Using an ex vivo radiotracing assays coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography-radiometric/mass spectrometry detection, we show that tumor explants isolated from CRPC progression are capable of de novo conversion of [(14)C]acetic acid to dihydrotestosterone and uptake of [(3)H]progesterone allows detection of the production of six other steroids upstream of dihydrotestosterone. This evidence suggests that de novo androgen synthesis may be a driving mechanism leading to CRPC progression following castration.
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              Taxane-induced blockade to nuclear accumulation of the androgen receptor predicts clinical responses in metastatic prostate cancer.

              Prostate cancer progression requires active androgen receptor (AR) signaling which occurs following translocation of AR from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. Chemotherapy with taxanes improves survival in patients with castrate resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Taxanes induce microtubule stabilization, mitotic arrest, and apoptotic cell death, but recent data suggest that taxanes can also affect AR signaling. Here, we report that taxanes inhibit ligand-induced AR nuclear translocation and downstream transcriptional activation of AR target genes such as prostate-specific antigen. AR nuclear translocation was not inhibited in cells with acquired β-tubulin mutations that prevent taxane-induced microtubule stabilization, confirming a role for microtubules in AR trafficking. Upon ligand activation, AR associated with the minus-end-microtubule motor dynein, thereby trafficking on microtubules to translocate to the nucleus. Analysis of circulating tumor cells (CTC) isolated from the peripheral blood of CRPC patients receiving taxane chemotherapy revealed a significant correlation between AR cytoplasmic sequestration and clinical response to therapy. These results indicate that taxanes act in CRPC patients at least in part by inhibiting AR nuclear transport and signaling. Further, they suggest that monitoring AR subcellular localization in the CTCs of CRPC patients might predict clinical responses to taxane chemotherapy.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Ther Clin Risk Manag
                Therapeutics and clinical risk management
                Informa UK Limited
                1176-6336
                1176-6336
                2014
                : 10
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Hematology/Oncology, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon.
                [2 ] Department of Nuclear Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon.
                Article
                tcrm-10-373
                10.2147/TCRM.S45667
                4043797
                24920911
                f66b88b6-258c-48f7-902b-ff74f9104139
                History

                alpha-emitting radionuclide,Alpharadin,bone metastasis

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