Introduction
Sepsis is life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response
to infection.1 The incidence of sepsis, as estimated by the Global Burden of Disease
study, was 48.9 million cases with 11 million deaths in 2017.2 In sub-Saharan Africa
(SSA), the burden is highest, with an estimated 16.7 million cases and sepsis accounting
for up to 45% of all deaths, in many SSA countries.2
Maternal sepsis is a sepsis that occurs during pregnancy, childbirth, postabortion
or in the postpartum period and neonatal sepsis is a sepsis that occurs within the
first 28 days of life. Reliable estimates of the incidence and mortality of maternal
and neonatal sepsis in SSA are incomplete. Notwithstanding this limitation, the most
recent estimate suggests that sepsis is responsible for 130 000 maternal deaths3 and
300 000 neonatal deaths annually, though this may be an underestimate,4 in view of
the recent Global Burden of Disease study report.2
Sepsis-related deaths in SSA reflect underlying political, poverty, health inequity
and health system challenges across Africa.5 These challenges affect preventative
and public health efforts to prevent sepsis and limit prompt and effective recognition
and treatment of sepsis to prevent mortality. The challenges include access to clean
water and sanitation, vaccination and provision of primary care in addition to access
to antimicrobial agents and strategies for their stewardship.6–9
In 2017, the World Health Assembly (WHA) passed a resolution to improve the prevention,
diagnosis and management of sepsis (WHA 70.7).10 This resolution recommended key action
areas for member states and future priorities.11 Based on these recommendations, we
outline nine key areas to accelerate progress in reducing death due to maternal and
neonatal sepsis in SSA.
How To Reduce MatERNAL And Neonatal Sepsis In SSA
1. Increase sepsis awareness in the community
Despite sepsis being a major cause of health loss globally, public awareness remains
low,11 with the delayed time from presentation to care in low-middle income countries
(LMICs) contributing to adverse outcomes.12 13 Increasing awareness among the public
and health workers is vital for prevention. In high-income countries (HICs), strategies
to increase public awareness include public service announcements of the early warning
signs of sepsis, published in traditional print and electronic media.14 With global
mobile connections standing at 7.6 billion15 and extremely high smartphone dissemination
in SSA, there is potential for exploitation of this digital resource to increase sepsis
awareness in LMICs. Rapid evaluation of public awareness can be measured using geospatial
analysis of online information-seeking behaviours as a surrogate measure.16
Educational messages can be accessed remotely and in real-time on mobile phones by
health workers in different geographic locations, unrestricted by time and space.
Mobile applications (apps) are conceptualised as a set of tools designed to undertake
specific tasks and jobs. A systematic review of 42 studies to assess the effectiveness
of mobile health in LMICs supports their use.17 The use of mobile phone apps in supporting,
training, data collection and reporting, emergency referrals, work planning and communication
between health workers was associated with improvements in adherence to treatment
algorithms, more accurate data collection and a reduction in treatment errors.17
2. Improve sepsis surveillance networks
Sepsis surveillance systems are critical tools for comprehensively quantifying the
burden of sepsis related morbidity and mortality over time. At facility level, surveillance
systems alert clinicians to the early signs of sepsis, enabling initiation of timely
treatment. The ideal surveillance system should be available in real-time at the point-of-care
with the need for early identification of patients with sepsis strengthened by the
known linear increase in the risk of mortality with each hour of delay in appropriate
antibiotic treatment.18 19 The establishment of electronic health records systems
to capture vital signs and laboratory values of patients have been shown to be very
effective in alerting clinicians to possible clinical deterioration due to sepsis.20
By harnessing these existing technologies, local and regional information system networks
for sepsis could be established in Africa.
3. Invest in health workers
Existing data highlight a marked disparity in annual health expenditure per capita
between LMICs and HICs; however, the economic cost of maternal and neonatal sepsis
in Africa is not clearly defined.5 21 The WHA sepsis resolution advocates for well-coordinated
efforts by politicians, policymakers, healthcare administrators, clinicians and researchers
to reduce the impacts of sepsis.10 Understaffing and a higher workload is a common
problem in health facilities across SSA9 and is linked to higher infection rates as
well as adverse outcomes.22 23 Addressing this challenge will require accelerated
progress in health worker recruitment and training.
Training and education of health workers, especially nurses and other frontline clinicians,
is vital in improving the outcomes of critically ill patients.24 25 Retention of skilled
staff should be a key consideration as ‘brain drain’ disproportionately affects health
workers in SSA. Strategies should include improved remuneration, better conditions
of service, task shifting and increased collaboration between those working in community
and hospital settings. In SSA, mobile devices have been successfully used to train
health workers.26 27 Aside from promoting contact with health workers in remote and
hard-to-reach areas, electronic training has the added advantage of supporting provider-to-provider
communication, feedback and professional networking. Programmes targeting education
of health workers in prevention and early recognition and treatment of maternal and
newborn sepsis should be prioritised.
4. Improve the early identification of sepsis in facilities
Several sepsis diagnostic scoring systems have been developed to identify changes
in physiological parameters which precede patient deterioration28 and alert clinicians
to promptly initiate treatment. Examples of these tools for use in the general adult
population include the Modified Early Warning Score, Universal Vital Assessment Score,29
National Early Warning Score 2 and the quick Sepsis Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA)
score. Importantly, none of these scores have been validated in pregnant women or
newborns. As such, they are unlikely to account for physiological differences in these
population groups.30
The Sepsis in Obstetrics Score, developed to detect maternal sepsis, appeared promising
in initial reports from the USA; however, it was not superior to general sepsis scoring
systems when tested in other regions.31 The obstetric modified SOFA score is an interesting
adaptation of qSOFA that requires only clinical data for assessment and thus can be
performed quickly and independently of laboratory tests.32 The UK Modified Early Obstetrics
Warning Score (MEOWS) was developed for the obstetric population to aid the identification
of clinical signs of deterioration in women developing critical illness. The MEOWS
is easy to administer and has been shown to have a high sensitivity (89%) and reasonable
specificity (79%) in predicting maternal morbidity, though it is not specific to sepsis.33
The shock index (SI), defined as ratio of heart rate to systolic blood pressure, has
recently been identified as a consistent predictor of adverse outcomes.34 35 Various
thresholds have been proposed for use of SI as an early warning system. In a prospective
study involving women with postpartum haemorrhage or sepsis, the SI was found to be
a consistent predictor of adverse outcomes compared with conventional vital signs.36
The introduction of maternal and neonatal sepsis scoring systems may be the first
step towards achieving a reliable surveillance system for sepsis in SSA. Electronic
surveillance tools which monitor physiological parameters should be developed to facilitate
automatic recognition of the early signs of sepsis in health facilities.
5. Ensure laboratory diagnostics for sepsis are affordable and available
Infection is usually indicated by a rise in peripheral inflammatory makers such as
the white blood cell count and C reactive protein. Cultures of relevant samples such
as blood, urine, sputum and tissues provide microbiological confirmation of infections
that give rise to sepsis. Rapid identification of pathogens from blood cultures has
been shown to positively influence patient survival, length of hospitalisation and
rational antibiotic prescriptions.37 The development of local antibiograms is desirable
to help facilities understand their local bacterial pathogens and match them to antibiotic
choices. The establishment and maintenance of reference laboratories to support more
sophisticated testing is essential.
In many LMIC settings, basic diagnostic modalities are lacking. Building local clinical
microbiology laboratory capacity is an urgent priority and should incorporate regular
training for staff to ensure they stay abreast with modern diagnostic methods. Recent
research has focused on identifying biomarkers and molecular detection tools to increase
the speed and reliability of diagnosis.38 However, to ensure accessibility and affordability
of modern diagnostic and biomarker testing, global health researchers and funders
must ensure innovation in diagnostics and in their accessibility and affordability
in LMIC settings.
Direct pathogen detection platforms promote the simultaneous identification of multiple
bacterial and fungal species.38 39 While there are several rapid molecular diagnostic
platforms to identify bacterial and viral pathogens commercially available, none are
widely available or affordable for resource-poor settings. Although rapid, innovative
and low-cost testing devices will improve the identification of causal micro-organisms;
to improve outcomes, this must be matched with availability of appropriate antimicrobial
agents. This requires certainty of supply chains, committed funding, along with strategies
at institutional level for antimicrobial stewardship to prevent the emergence of resistant
organisms.
6. Improve quality of care through sepsis specific guidelines
While adherence to protocols and clinical guidelines can improve survival and outcomes
in sepsis, in a survey of 185 hospitals across SSA, only 1.5% used clinical sepsis
guidelines. Lack of basic facilities, equipment and medicines were identified as barriers
to implementation.7 Resource limitations profoundly impact the ability to implement
internationally recommended sepsis guidelines in SSA.40
In high-income settings, significant reductions in maternal and neonatal sepsis have
been achieved through quality improvement initiatives to promote adherence to evidenced-based
management of sepsis.41 42 Quality improvement initiatives include educational programmes
to increase awareness of the signs of sepsis; use of triage-based algorithms and decision
support tools to screen for sepsis,43 44 use of treatment order-sets45 and initiatives
to reduce time to antibiotics.46
Prompt administration of antibiotics remains the cornerstone of sepsis management.
In the face of a growing burden of antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic-associated
infections such as Clostridioides difficile infection, a greater alignment between
antimicrobial stewardship and sepsis prevention and treatment programmes is essential.47
Complementary strategies such as de-escalation protocols and prompt discontinuation
of antibiotics when no longer indicated should be incorporated into sepsis quality
improvement initiatives. Little is known about antimicrobial resistance in maternity
units globally48 and this information is essential to guide policy on the safe administration
of prophylactic antibiotics during childbirth.
Another obvious gap is found in the Third International Consensus on Sepsis (Sepsis-3)1
which does not provide criteria for diagnosis of sepsis in pregnant women. The ability
of clinicians in SSA countries to adhere to sepsis guidelines is also limited by shortage
of appropriately trained health workers, equipment and other supporting infrastructure.7
7. Increase access and use of vaccines to prevent the most common infections that
lead to sepsis in pregnancy and the newborn period
Vaccinations are estimated to prevent 2–3 million infection-associated deaths every
year among women and children.49 Vaccines also have an indirect action on minimising
antimicrobial resistance by reducing febrile illnesses and antibiotic use.50 A vaccine
for Group B Streptococcus is currently under evaluation and if effective, will have
the potential to save 150 000 newborn lives every year and prevent up to 260 000 cases
of maternal and newborn sepsis.51 Seasonal influenza caused by types A, B, C and D
of influenza viruses is a public health problem which can be prevented by vaccination.
Although the burden of seasonal influenza in Africa is yet to be fully described,
the morbidity, mortality and economic losses from this infection are likely to be
very high.52
Despite widespread availability of whole-cell pertussis (wP) vaccines, the burden
of pertussis remains unacceptably high in the African continent.53 This has been attributed
to factors such as a lack of disease awareness and surveillance, diagnostic limitations
and low prioritisation of this disease by policy makers. Intensified efforts to promote
greater coverage with three primary doses of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccines
and booster doses in older children and adolescents in Africa is also required.
Widespread protocols around immunisation for both adults and children is likely to
decrease sepsis mortality in SSA. Current barriers to vaccination in this region include
armed conflict, funding shortfalls, vaccine shortages and a lack of political will.54
Measures to address these barriers include the establishment of lasting peace across
the continent, improved funding for vaccination programmes and strengthening regional
supply chains.
8. Strengthen infection prevention and control programmes and best practices during
labour, childbirth and postnatal care
Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) is critical for the prevention of sepsis and
provision of safe and quality care.55 Less than 30% of delivery rooms in four East
African countries reported access to a safe water supply56 while a global review of
health facilities in low-resource settings found that 40% had no water supply and
19% lacked adequate sanitation conditions.6 Improvements in WASH could reduce the
total burden of disease worldwide by as much as 10%.57 Implementation of basic measures
such as hand hygiene, reducing overcrowding in maternity and neonatal units, promoting
hygienic care of the umbilical cord and kangaroo care for small and/or preterm babies
have all been shown to mitigate the risk of infection.58 59 Thus, the provision of
safe water and promotion of effective hygiene practices should be emphasised and urgently
prioritised in healthcare settings in SSA. This could be achieved by securing the
commitment of policy makers to provide clean water in health facilities and by educating
health workers and the wider population on the importance of adhering to standard
hygiene practices.
9. Undertake high-quality research in pregnant and newborn African populations
There are imminent dangers in transferring effective solutions for sepsis management
in HICs to LMICs. This is mirrored by recent well designed randomised controlled trials
which have reflected worse outcomes for both children and adults with sepsis treated
with fluid boluses in Africa.13 60 61 The two trials conducted in Zambia comparing
an early goal directed therapy (EGDT) protocol (involving intravenous fluids among
other measures) to usual care found increased in-hospital mortality in the EGDT arm
compared with usual care.13 61 High-quality research led by local investigators needs
to be conducted to provide answers to conundrums associated with sepsis management
among pregnant and newborn populations. These include determining the ideal type and
volume of resuscitation fluid for sepsis, ascertaining the role of targeted/precision
medicine approaches, rapid diagnostic tests and defining predictors of sepsis long-term
morbidity and mortality.
Conclusion
Maternal and neonatal sepsis is under-recognised in SSA with significant mortality
and morbidity consequences. Although mostly preventable, a complex interplay of several
factors is hampering a robust response to the threat posed by sepsis in SSA.
A multimodal approach is required to tackle maternal and neonatal sepsis within the
fragile health systems of the SSA region. Pragmatic steps in alignment with the WHA
sepsis resolution include increasing public and health worker awareness of sepsis,
establishing surveillance networks, developing laboratory and human capacity, facilitating
research and the development of clinical guidelines in addition to promoting routine
vaccination and good infection prevention and control practices.