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      Non-Transferrin-Bound Iron Is Associated with Enhanced Staphylococcus aureus Growth in Hemodialysis Patients Receiving Intravenous Iron Sucrose

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          Abstract

          Background: Hemodialysis vascular access infections are most frequently caused by Staphylococcus spp. The purpose of this study was to determine if S. aureus growth is enhanced after administration of IV iron sucrose and to establish a relationship between the appearance of non-transferrin-bound iron (NTBI) and S. aureus growth. Methods: Serum samples were obtained from 12 hemodialysis patients receiving maintenance doses of 100 mg of iron sucrose at baseline and 5, 30, 90, 220 min and 48 h after iron administration. Assays for NTBI and transferrin saturation were performed. S. aureus isolates were used to inoculate patient serum samples. Bacterial growth was determined by optical density. Results: Six of 12 patients had NTBI present within 30 min of the iron dose. NTBI was present more frequently in patients with baseline transferrin saturation values >30% (p < 0.05). Bacterial growth was significantly greater in patients who had NTBI present at 5, 90 and 220 min after iron administration compared to those who did not have NTBI present. Conclusions: Doses of 100 mg of iron sucrose are associated with the presence of NTBI and enhanced S. aureus growth.

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          Passage of heme-iron across the envelope of Staphylococcus aureus.

          The cell wall envelope of Gram-positive pathogens functions as a scaffold for the attachment of virulence factors and as a sieve that prevents diffusion of molecules. Here the isd genes (iron-regulated surface determinant) of Staphylococcus aureus were found to encode factors responsible for hemoglobin binding and passage of heme-iron to the cytoplasm, where it acts as an essential nutrient. Heme-iron passage required two sortases that tether Isd proteins to unique locations within the cell wall. Thus, Isd appears to act as an import apparatus that uses cell wall-anchored proteins to relay heme-iron across the bacterial envelope.
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            Impact of dialysis dose and membrane on infection-related hospitalization and death: results of the HEMO Study.

            Infection is the second most common cause of death among hemodialysis patients. A predefined secondary aim of the HEMO study was to determine if dialysis dose or flux reduced infection-related deaths or hospitalizations. The effects of dialysis dose, dialysis membrane, and other clinical parameters on infection-related deaths and first infection-related hospitalizations were analyzed using Cox regression analysis. Among the 1846 randomized patients (mean age, 58 yr; 56% female; 63% black; 45% with diabetes), there were 871 deaths, of which 201 (23%) were due to infection. There were 1698 infection-related hospitalizations, yielding a 35% annual rate. The likelihood of infection-related death did not differ between patients randomized to a high or standard dose (relative risk [RR], 0.99 [0.75 to 1.31]) or between patients randomized to high-flux or low-flux membranes (RR, 0.85 [0.64 to 1.13]). The relative risk of infection-related death was associated (P < 0.001 for each variable) with age (RR, 1.47 [1.29 to 1.68] per 10 yr); co-morbidity score (RR, 1.46 [1.21 to 1.76]), and serum albumin (RR, 0.19 [0.09 to 0.41] per g/dl). The first infection-related hospitalization was related to the vascular access in 21% of the cases, and non-access-related in 79%. Catheters were present in 32% of all study patients admitted with access-related infection, even though catheters represented only 7.6% of vascular accesses in the study. In conclusion, infection accounted for almost one fourth of deaths. Infection-related deaths were not reduced by higher dose or by high flux dialyzers. In this prospective study, most infection-related hospitalizations were not attributed to vascular access. However, the frequency of access-related, infection-related hospitalizations was disproportionately higher among patients with catheters compared with grafts or fistulas.
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              Parenteral iron formulations: a comparative toxicologic analysis and mechanisms of cell injury.

              Multiple parenteral iron (Fe) formulations exist for administration to patients with end-stage renal disease. Although there are concerns regarding their potential toxicities, no direct in vitro comparisons of these agents exist. Thus, the present study contrasted pro-oxidant and cytotoxic potentials of four available Fe preparations: Fe dextran (Fe dext), Fe sucrose (Fe sucr), Fe gluconate (Fe gluc), and Fe oligosaccharide (Fe OS). Differing dosages (0.06 to 1 mg/mL) of each compound were added to either (1) isolated mouse proximal tubule segments, (2) renal cortical homogenates, or (3) cultured human proximal tubule (HK-2) cells (0.5- to 72-hour incubations). Oxidant injury (malondialdehyde generation) and lethal cell injury (percentage of lactate dehydrogenase release; tetrazolium dye uptake) were assessed. Effects of selected antioxidants (glutathione [GSH], catalase, dimethylthiourea (DMTU), and sodium benzoate also were assessed. Each test agent induced massive and similar degrees of lipid peroxidation. Nevertheless, marked differences in cell death resulted (Fe sucr > Fe gluc > Fe dext approximately Fe OS). This relative toxicity profile also was observed in cultured aortic endothelial cells. Catalase, DMTU, and sodium benzoate conferred no protection. However, GSH and its constituent amino acid glycine blocked Fe sucr-mediated cell death. The latter was mediated by mitochondrial blockade, causing free radical generation and a severe adenosine triphosphate depletion state. (1) parenteral Fes are highly potent pro-oxidants and capable of inducing tubular and endothelial cell death, (2) markedly different toxicity profiles exist among these agents, and (3) GSH can exert protective effects. However, the latter stems from GSH's glycine content, rather than from a direct antioxidant effect. Copyright 2002 by the National Kidney Foundation, Inc.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                AJN
                Am J Nephrol
                10.1159/issn.0250-8095
                American Journal of Nephrology
                S. Karger AG
                0250-8095
                1421-9670
                2006
                July 2006
                19 July 2006
                : 26
                : 3
                : 304-309
                Affiliations
                aUniversity of New Mexico College of Pharmacy, bUniversity of New Mexico Hospitals, Albuquerque, N. Mex., USA
                Article
                94343 Am J Nephrol 2006;26:304–309
                10.1159/000094343
                16809897
                02d0f6f7-0eca-4637-9311-305adb7795fb
                © 2006 S. Karger AG, Basel

                Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug. Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.

                History
                : 17 April 2006
                : 05 June 2006
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 1, References: 28, Pages: 6
                Categories
                Original Report: Patient-Oriented, Translational Research

                Cardiovascular Medicine,Nephrology
                Intravenous iron,<italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> infection,Free iron,Vascular access

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