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      Role of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria in Agricultural Sustainability—A Review

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          Abstract

          Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) shows an important role in the sustainable agriculture industry. The increasing demand for crop production with a significant reduction of synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides use is a big challenge nowadays. The use of PGPR has been proven to be an environmentally sound way of increasing crop yields by facilitating plant growth through either a direct or indirect mechanism. The mechanisms of PGPR include regulating hormonal and nutritional balance, inducing resistance against plant pathogens, and solubilizing nutrients for easy uptake by plants. In addition, PGPR show synergistic and antagonistic interactions with microorganisms within the rhizosphere and beyond in bulk soil, which indirectly boosts plant growth rate. There are many bacteria species that act as PGPR, described in the literature as successful for improving plant growth. However, there is a gap between the mode of action (mechanism) of the PGPR for plant growth and the role of the PGPR as biofertilizer—thus the importance of nano-encapsulation technology in improving the efficacy of PGPR. Hence, this review bridges the gap mentioned and summarizes the mechanism of PGPR as a biofertilizer for agricultural sustainability.

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          Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria: Mechanisms and Applications

          Bernard Glick (2012)
          The worldwide increases in both environmental damage and human population pressure have the unfortunate consequence that global food production may soon become insufficient to feed all of the world's people. It is therefore essential that agricultural productivity be significantly increased within the next few decades. To this end, agricultural practice is moving toward a more sustainable and environmentally friendly approach. This includes both the increasing use of transgenic plants and plant growth-promoting bacteria as a part of mainstream agricultural practice. Here, a number of the mechanisms utilized by plant growth-promoting bacteria are discussed and considered. It is envisioned that in the not too distant future, plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) will begin to replace the use of chemicals in agriculture, horticulture, silviculture, and environmental cleanup strategies. While there may not be one simple strategy that can effectively promote the growth of all plants under all conditions, some of the strategies that are discussed already show great promise.
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            Indole-3-acetic acid in microbial and microorganism-plant signaling.

            Stijn Spaepen, Jos Vanderleyden, Roseline Remans (2007)
            Diverse bacterial species possess the ability to produce the auxin phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Different biosynthesis pathways have been identified and redundancy for IAA biosynthesis is widespread among plant-associated bacteria. Interactions between IAA-producing bacteria and plants lead to diverse outcomes on the plant side, varying from pathogenesis to phyto-stimulation. Reviewing the role of bacterial IAA in different microorganism-plant interactions highlights the fact that bacteria use this phytohormone to interact with plants as part of their colonization strategy, including phyto-stimulation and circumvention of basal plant defense mechanisms. Moreover, several recent reports indicate that IAA can also be a signaling molecule in bacteria and therefore can have a direct effect on bacterial physiology. This review discusses past and recent data, and emerging views on IAA, a well-known phytohormone, as a microbial metabolic and signaling molecule.
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              Nitrous oxide emissions from soils: how well do we understand the processes and their controls?

              Klaus Butterbach-Bahl, Elizabeth Baggs, Michael Dannenmann … (2013)
              Although it is well established that soils are the dominating source for atmospheric nitrous oxide (N2O), we are still struggling to fully understand the complexity of the underlying microbial production and consumption processes and the links to biotic (e.g. inter- and intraspecies competition, food webs, plant–microbe interaction) and abiotic (e.g. soil climate, physics and chemistry) factors. Recent work shows that a better understanding of the composition and diversity of the microbial community across a variety of soils in different climates and under different land use, as well as plant–microbe interactions in the rhizosphere, may provide a key to better understand the variability of N2O fluxes at the soil–atmosphere interface. Moreover, recent insights into the regulation of the reduction of N2O to dinitrogen (N2) have increased our understanding of N2O exchange. This improved process understanding, building on the increased use of isotope tracing techniques and metagenomics, needs to go along with improvements in measurement techniques for N2O (and N2) emission in order to obtain robust field and laboratory datasets for different ecosystem types. Advances in both fields are currently used to improve process descriptions in biogeochemical models, which may eventually be used not only to test our current process understanding from the microsite to the field level, but also used as tools for up-scaling emissions to landscapes and regions and to explore feedbacks of soil N2O emissions to changes in environmental conditions, land management and land use.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Derek J. McPhee: Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Molecules
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Molecules
                Journal ID (publisher-id): molecules
                Title: Molecules
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 1420-3049
                Publication date (Electronic): 29 April 2016
                Publication date Collection: May 2016
                Volume: 21
                Issue: 5
                Electronic Location Identifier: 573
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; pravin92@ 123456siswa.um.edu.my (P.V.); salmah_r@ 123456um.edu.my (S.I.); amru@ 123456um.edu.my (A.N.B.)
                [2 ]Centre for Research in Biotechnology for Agriculture (CEBAR), Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
                [3 ]Forest Product Divisions, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia; tumirah@ 123456frim.gov.my
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: rosazlin@ 123456um.edu.my ; Tel.: +60-3-7967-4360
                Article
                Publisher ID: molecules-21-00573
                DOI: 10.3390/molecules21050573
                PMC ID: 6273255
                PubMed ID: 27136521
                SO-VID: 0325de64-0bda-44ae-ae26-7f330aceedaf
                Copyright © © 2016 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 27 February 2016
                Date accepted : 26 April 2016
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: biofertilizer,plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (pgpr),plant-microbes,plant growth,nano-encapsulation technology
                Data availability:
                Keywords: biofertilizer, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (pgpr), plant-microbes, plant growth, nano-encapsulation technology

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