From 1900 to the end of the 20th century, and into the present, there has been a significant
shift in the top ten causes of death in the United States (
Table 1, Table 2).1, 2, 3 Where once infectious diseases were leading health care
concerns, these have been largely replaced by cardiovascular disease and cancer. Unfortunately
for a large proportion of the planet, infectious diseases remain the leading causes
of death,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 disability, in some cases preventable blindness,12,
13 and other serious sequelae. Because of our location, significant public health
and medical infrastructure, and widespread immunizations against a wide array of pathogens,
the US has been fortunately isolated from many infectious diseases, with the notable
exception of tuberculosis (TB), HIV/AIDS, Lyme, West Nile, pneumonia, and influenza-related
illness, as well as hospital-acquired infections. Of note, West Nile virus infections
in the United States resulted in more than 140 deaths in 2006.
14
Table 1
Leading causes of death in 1900 and 1997 in the US and in 1992 in Peru.
Major causes of death (attributable)
The United States, 1900
Peru, 1992
The United States, 1997
1
Respiratory disease
Respiratory infections
Heart disease
2
Tuberculosis
Cancer
Cancer
3
Gastrointestinal disease
Gastrointestinal disease
Cerebrovascular disease
4
Heart disease
Heart disease
Pulmonary disease
5
Infectious/parasitic diseases
Tuberculosis
Accidents
6
Kidney diseases
Cerebrovascular disease
Pneumonia/influenza
7
Early infancy diseases
Urinary system disease
Diabetes
8
Cerebrovascular disease
Nutritional deficiencies
Suicide
9
Cancer
Early infancy
Homicide
10
Liver disease
HIV AIDS
Table 2
Top five causes of death for persons 65 years of age and older.
Whites
Blacks
American Indians
Asian or Pacific Islanders
Hispanics
1. Heart disease
Heart disease
Heart disease
Heart disease
Heart disease
2. Cancer
Cancer
Cancer
Cancer
Cancer
3. Stroke
Stroke
Stroke
Stroke
4. COPD
Diabetes
Stroke
Pneumonia/influenza
COPD
5. Pneumonia/influenza
Pneumonia/influenza
COPD
COPD
Pneumonia/influenza
Unfortunately most of the world still bears an enormous burden related to infections.
Instead of recognizing that billions of people worldwide are exposed to important
and emerging infectious diseases,8, 9, 15, 16, 17 our training has relegated this
topic mostly to “tropical medicine” or public health or labeled the threat as a “zebra”
item.18, 19 While most of us remember from our early medical training the old adage
“If you hear hoof beats, think horses, not zebras,” the US, and our attention, including
medical training, can no longer afford to follow this adage or relegate these so-called
“zebras” to the dismissed column, as many of them are important global health concerns.
The world has come to our country as much as we have traveled to the world. And by
extension—the world's diseases have come to our clinics, emergency departments, and
health care facilities.
Globalization, population shifts, and the changing ecology, including encroachment
of previously unexplored regions, have altered the longstanding epidemiology of infectious
diseases, causing spread where once continents and oceans contained the pathogen.
New pathogens are occurring—some through unknown means and others through natural
adaptation. It has long been recognized that influenza viruses exchange genetic material,
either emerging as a new strain, as we continue to see with H5N1,20, 21, 22, 23, 24,
25 H1N1,26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and now the latest H7N9.32, 33, 34, 35 But this likely
holds true for other viruses, as recently demonstrated with a novel coronavirus, most
recently referred to as Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS CoV).10, 11
Social determinants of health—poverty, overcrowding, lack of infrastructure in many
developing nations and in our own cities, which leads to poor sanitation, inadequate
clean water, under-immunization and lack of health care access, environmental changes
resulting in expanding zones for mosquitoes and the pathogens they transmit, cultural
concerns about modern medicine, and restrictions on vector control including public
opinion, cost, safety, impact on the ecology, and population migration—have all contributed
to a resurgence in certain infectious diseases and a spread to areas previously unaffected,
including the United States.
Disease transmission primarily occurs through person-to-person contact [respiratory
(
Fig. 1, Fig. 2),6, 22 fecal oral, or blood exchange], through fomites, instruments
(drug paraphernalia or inadequately cleaned medical/surgical equipment) and vectors
(mosquitoes or worms). While not everyone is exposed to instruments, or mosquitoes,
avoiding people can be a challenge—respiratory contagion being an issue of enormous
concern in the containment of infections. The spread of pulmonary infections occurs
readily from upper and lower respiratory tract infections (Fig. 2).6, 22, 36, 37
Fig. 1
Routes of entry for respiratory infections
Fig. 2
Respiratory infections (upper and lower tract) can readily be spread airborne.6, 22
Respiratory illness spread in the following ways6, 22, 36, 37:
•
Droplets
•
Proximity (less than 6-ft social distancing especially)
•
Environment (overcrowding, for example)
•
Fomites
•
Mucosa
•
Prior immunity (or lack thereof)
•
Poor hygiene
•
Inherent transmissibility of pathogen (Ro)
Although great strides have been made over the last 20 years, including the ability
to describe the etiology of a variety of disease states by the same pathogens and
symptom syndromes that previously remained mysteries without clear-cut etiologies,
including parvovirus B19, cytomegalovirus (CMV), Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) and others,
pathogens and the vectors that facilitate their transmission remain a persistent danger.
Dr. Lederberg was prescient when he opined about the challenges for humans that viruses
pose.
38
Against this backdrop of new, reemerging, potentially travel related, and newly adapted,
more virulent pathogens, one can appreciate there are numerous emerging infectious
threats that are suitable for an entire edition of Disease-a-Month to address.
Clearly there are many pathogens to discuss, and train for in the US, but we would
be remiss to ignore the most significant infectious diseases—ones that impact large
populations and cause serious illness, such as malaria,
39
dengue, tuberculosis,40, 41 HIV/AIDS, and influenza, among the most important.
As this article goes to press, we are entering influenza season. It is not news, nor
should it be necessary for the CDC to remind the public and health care professionals
that over 30,000 people die every year in the United States from just two vaccine
preventable diseases (VPD)—influenza and pneumococcal pneumonia. As physicians and
health care providers, we recognize any success at reducing infections from 1900 to
2000 is largely due to vaccines, sanitation, and better hygiene. In spite of this,
some of our colleagues continue to express that they do not get the flu shot. It is
critically important that we not only encourage our patients to obtain appropriate
vaccinations, we should be good role models and obtain the vaccines ourselves.
The scope of the first two editions (Parts I and II) focus on emerging, novel, and/or
expanding infectious diseases in general, travel-related infections, and then specifically
on dengue.
Dengue is one of the most important global pathogens—a viral hemorrhagic fever illness
that imperils over 3 billion people,
17
affects through various forms of illness hundreds of millions of persons worldwide,
including deaths, is spreading beyond its normal confines, and has been increasingly
diagnosed in the United States.
A separate edition of Disease-a-Month, Part II will concentrate on the most recently
identified coronavirus MERS CoV and a novel reassortant avian origin human influenza
A virus H7N9 with an update of the H5N1 avian influenza into 2013, other influenza
viral illnesses, a discussion on the currently available antivirals, as well as ones
being developed to treat influenza, and an update on influenza vaccines, including
the ones most recently approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)—the quadrivalent
inhaled vaccine, in addition to looking at adjunctive therapies, including studies
investigating the use of anti-inflammatory medications and the various “statin” drugs.
In 2012, a novel coronavirus MERS CoV causing Middle East respiratory syndrome was
discovered, which is distinct from the previously problematic novel coronavirus referred
to as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS) that appeared in 2002–2003.
11
MERS CoV to date seems to carry a higher case-fatality rate, but it is currently less
capable of person-to-person transmission than SARS. However we are still early in
the outbreak and much is left to learn.10, 11
Figure 3 illustrates the number of countries where confirmed H5N1 infection has occurred,
according to WHO, from 2003 to 2007, excluding the 100,000,000 birds afflicted over
that time as well as other non-human species.
38
Fig. 3
WHO map of countries involving confirmed human cases 2003–2007.42, 43
In the following section, we will discuss a variety of clinically important emerging
and reemerging pathogens, the extent of morbidity and mortality that they pose, the
clinical challenges we face as health care professionals, including travel-associated
illness (TAI), and the opportunities to prevent, contain, and recognize the growing
number of infections occurring worldwide from well-entrenched diseases such as multidrug-resistant
tuberculosis (MDR TB) to novel ones such as novel human coronavirus now referred to
as Middle East respiratory syndrome human coronavirus (MERS HCoV), that pose a very
real threat of creating widespread epidemics, even pandemics.
It is worth noting within the scope of important emerging and reemerging disease,
we could just as easily dedicate an entire edition to multidrug- and extreme drug-resistant
tuberculosis (MDR TB and XDR TB, respectively), to the critically important hospital-associated
infections such as by Clostridium difficile and carbapenem resistant enterococci (CRE),
or to the emerging transplant-associated viral illnesses. As long ago as 1998, concerns
had been raised about the rising threat of C. difficile.44, 45 Some of these will
be addressed in a future edition of Disease-a-Month.
Regardless of which emerging pathogen we discuss—avian influenza H5N1, H7N9, MERS
CoV, swine flu, or other viruses—it is important to recognize that preparedness efforts
as a response to a potential pandemic caused by swine or avian influenza, SARS, or
MERS can also enhance awareness and promote advances in diagnostic and treatment capabilities
toward other significant infectious disease worldwide.22, 43, 46
It is also important to note these efforts are not part of a zero sum game. Enhancing
capacity for one pathogen threat can improve the capability to address a wider array
of infectious diseases. Recognizing we can never defeat pathogens, as there will always
be infectious threats as long as mankind explores new regions, microbes retain their
ability to adapt to our best science, poverty, poor sanitation, persistent overcrowding
in housing and health care facilities, along with cutbacks in research, health care
resources, and public health underscore the importance of continued vigilance for
and training about emerging infectious diseases to maximize what capabilities we still
have.
While the mainstay of containing emerging threats often rests upon public health expertise—that
is the big picture. Science can provide timely antimicrobials, even vaccines to help
thwart the spread of infections. But disease and health care occur at the street level
where person-to-person transmission occurs. Hospital and emergency department (ED)
overcrowding remains a significant problem in containing the spread of infections.
While some health care facilities (HCF) have improved access to masks and hand sanitizers
as well as cough/sneeze etiquette posters, these can have limited value if manpower
shortages, cultural imperatives, for example, going to a health care facility with
many members of the family, and language and education barriers work against social
distancing, personal hygiene, and other containment strategies. Some practices and
health care facilities have implemented old pediatric strategies of placing potentially
contagious patients into separate areas. Clearly this is a space-, manpower-, and
resource-intensive strategy, but one that may reduce transmission of illness from
those who are affected. A serious discussion on how to cohort and isolate potentially
contagious people, as well as strategies to alleviate overcrowding, much of which
stems from the misuse of ED and HCF for primary care problems, is vitally necessary.
47
The change in immigration—from the 1900s where illness often was a disqualification
to entry to the 2000s where often very sick and contagious individuals freely enter—needs
serious solutions. It seems this discussion, including how to reduce risk at critical
population portals—airports, emergency departments, and elsewhere—rarely occurs unless
there is threat of a SARS or novel swine flu infection, such as happened in 2003 and
2009, respectively.
Additionally, public health is often underfunded, though it is a critical component
in both a domestic and global safety net to capture and share information as well
as resources towards containing outbreaks. There still remains, in many regions, a
disconnect between public health medicine and private health care.
Thinking out of the box, from academia, industry, and health care facility leaders,
and multidisciplinary collaboration to identify pre-epidemic opportunities to reduce
the risk of disease transmission are critically important now, perhaps more than ever,
especially considering the number of existing global infections—hospital-acquired
and endemic or in the wild that are reemerging (polio and dengue) or transforming
into more virulent forms (e.g., C. difficile).48, 49 This will take political and
fiscal courage as well as significant effort. Improving how we train our future health
care professionals, especially to consider travel-related illnesses and global infections
that are likely to show up in the US, as well as providing the tools to more rapidly
identify these diseases is an important task to be considered in medical education.
As we will discuss in the MERS CoV section, the exchange of information through global
and regional public health as well as the use of social media, including ProMED discussion
sites, has a been valuable resource for health care professionals on the front lines
of treating emerging pathogen-related illnesses.
A useful reference, especially for guiding patients before their journeys, is the
CDC Health Information for International Travel 2014 (
Fig. 4).50, 51 Utilizing social media and other approaches to promote strategies that
can reduce transmission of diseases—whether respiratory, sexually transmitted, even
drug-use related—to diverse populations within our communities offer promise. The
anti-vaccine movement has deftly utilized the media and demonstrated the power of,
if you will excuse the pun “going viral”—we, too, must adapt and improve our proactive
use of these communications tools.
Fig. 4
CDC Health Information for International Travel 2014.50, 51
Lastly, a reminder that we live in a global world should serve as a caution that the
US is no longer isolated from even the most remote places or protected from outbreaks
abroad. With the magnitude of population movement—returning service men and women
from war-torn, impoverished regions and areas with multiple, significant endemic illnesses,
immigration, business travel, and vacationing—we all need to abandon the dangerous
notion of “over there.” As SARS demonstrated to North America in 2003 and Swine Flu
in 2009, global emerging infections such as dengue are here to stay for the foreseeable
future and the US will be visited sooner or later by another one. Will it be MERS
CoV, Avian H7N9, or something completely novel? And most importantly, will we be prepared?