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      Application of chromatographic techniques in the analysis of total nitrosamines in water

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          Abstract

          The use of ozone, chloramine and chlorine dioxide for water treatment results in the formation N-nitrosamines in the treated water. These groups of chemicals and other nitrogen-containing compounds have been described as disinfection by-products (DBPs) which are known for their toxicity. Nitrosamines are a potential source of nitric oxide (NO) which can bind with metals present in the sample matrix leading to formation of metal – nitrosyl complexes and dissolved metals have the potential to increase the total nitrosamines in water. This phenomenon has not received the desired attention and determination of metal-nitrosyl complexes lack standard analytical technique. Chromatography linked to various detectors is the commonest of the techniques for nitrosamine analysis but it is beset with reduced sensitivity as a result of inappropriate choice of the column. Incidentally, chromatographic techniques have not been really adapted for the analysis of metal-nitrosyl complexes. Therefore, there is need for the survey of existing techniques vis-à-vis metal-nitrosamine analysis and to suggest possible areas for method optimization.

          Abstract

          Analytical chemistry; Electrochemistry; Metals; Nitric oxide; n-nitrosodimethylamine; column; carcinogenic; chromatography

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          Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research.

          S. Richardson, M. Plewa, E. Wagner … (2007)
          Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when disinfectants (chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, or chloramines) react with naturally occurring organic matter, anthropogenic contaminants, bromide, and iodide during the production of drinking water. Here we review 30 years of research on the occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of 85 DBPs, 11 of which are currently regulated by the U.S., and 74 of which are considered emerging DBPs due to their moderate occurrence levels and/or toxicological properties. These 74 include halonitromethanes, iodo-acids and other unregulated halo-acids, iodo-trihalomethanes (THMs), and other unregulated halomethanes, halofuranones (MX [3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone] and brominated MX DBPs), haloamides, haloacetonitriles, tribromopyrrole, aldehydes, and N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and other nitrosamines. Alternative disinfection practices result in drinking water from which extracted organic material is less mutagenic than extracts of chlorinated water. However, the levels of many emerging DBPs are increased by alternative disinfectants (primarily ozone or chloramines) compared to chlorination, and many emerging DBPs are more genotoxic than some of the regulated DBPs. Our analysis identified three categories of DBPs of particular interest. Category 1 contains eight DBPs with some or all of the toxicologic characteristics of human carcinogens: four regulated (bromodichloromethane, dichloroacetic acid, dibromoacetic acid, and bromate) and four unregulated DBPs (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, MX, and NDMA). Categories 2 and 3 contain 43 emerging DBPs that are present at moderate levels (sub- to low-mug/L): category 2 contains 29 of these that are genotoxic (including chloral hydrate and chloroacetaldehyde, which are also a rodent carcinogens); category 3 contains the remaining 14 for which little or no toxicological data are available. In general, the brominated DBPs are both more genotoxic and carcinogenic than are chlorinated compounds, and iodinated DBPs were the most genotoxic of all but have not been tested for carcinogenicity. There were toxicological data gaps for even some of the 11 regulated DBPs, as well as for most of the 74 emerging DBPs. A systematic assessment of DBPs for genotoxicity has been performed for approximately 60 DBPs for DNA damage in mammalian cells and 16 for mutagenicity in Salmonella. A recent epidemiologic study found that much of the risk for bladder cancer associated with drinking water was associated with three factors: THM levels, showering/bathing/swimming (i.e., dermal/inhalation exposure), and genotype (having the GSTT1-1 gene). This finding, along with mechanistic studies, highlights the emerging importance of dermal/inhalation exposure to the THMs, or possibly other DBPs, and the role of genotype for risk for drinking-water-associated bladder cancer. More than 50% of the total organic halogen (TOX) formed by chlorination and more than 50% of the assimilable organic carbon (AOC) formed by ozonation has not been identified chemically. The potential interactions among the 600 identified DBPs in the complex mixture of drinking water to which we are exposed by various routes is not reflected in any of the toxicology studies of individual DBPs. The categories of DBPs described here, the identified data gaps, and the emerging role of dermal/inhalation exposure provide guidance for drinking water and public health research.
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            Water analysis: emerging contaminants and current issues.

            Thomas A. Ternes, Christopher D. Richardson (2011)
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              Photoinduced linkage isomers of transition-metal nitrosyl compounds and related complexes.

              Philip Coppens, Irina Novozhilova, Andrey Kovalevsky (2002)
              Article 0 comments Cited 51 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Damilola Babatunde
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Heliyon
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Heliyon
                Title: Heliyon
                Publisher: Elsevier
                ISSN (Electronic): 2405-8440
                Publication date PMC-release: 03 March 2020
                Publication date Collection: March 2020
                Publication date (Electronic): 03 March 2020
                Volume: 6
                Issue: 3
                Electronic Location Identifier: e03447
                Affiliations
                [a ]Department of Chemistry, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi State, Nigeria
                [b ]Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Science, Faculty of Science, Arcadia Campus, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa
                [c ]Department of Chemical Engineering, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
                [d ]Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria
                Author notes
                Article
                Publisher ID: S2405-8440(20)30292-9 Publisher ID: e03447
                DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03447
                PMC ID: 7056657
                SO-VID: 06b02585-5a00-4c10-bb80-34e32f195450
                Copyright © © 2020 The Authors
                License:

                This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 7 June 2019
                Date revision received : 3 February 2020
                Date accepted : 14 February 2020
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                Keywords: analytical chemistry,electrochemistry,metals,nitric oxide,n-nitrosodimethylamine,column,carcinogenic,chromatography
                Data availability:
                Keywords: analytical chemistry, electrochemistry, metals, nitric oxide, n-nitrosodimethylamine, column, carcinogenic, chromatography

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