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      Arthropod parasites of Antarctic and Subantarctic birds and pinnipeds: A review of host-parasite associations

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          Abstract

          Due to its cold and dry climate and scarcity of ice-free land, Antarctica has one of the most extreme environments on our planet. To survive in the Antarctic region, parasitic arthropods must either remain closely associated with their hosts throughout the entire life cycle or develop physiological adaptations to survive in the terrestrial habitat while their hosts are away foraging at sea or overwintering at lower latitudes. Forty-eight species of birds and seven species of pinnipeds breed in the Antarctic region, with 158 species/subspecies of parasitic arthropods recorded thus far, comprising: sucking lice (Echinophthiriidae), chewing lice (Menoponidae, Philopteridae), fleas (Ceratophyllidae, Pygiopsyllidae, Rhopalopsyllidae), pentastomes (Reighardiidae), hard ticks (Ixodidae), nest-associated haematophagous mites (Laelapidae), nasal mites (Halarachnidae, Rhinonyssidae) and feather mites (Alloptidae, Avenzoariidae, Xolalgidae, Freyanidae). In this review, we provide an updated compilation of the available information on the host-parasite associations of arthropods infesting birds and pinnipeds in the Antarctic region, and discuss some over-arching ecological patterns and gaps of knowledge.

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          Highlights

          • Antarctic parasitic arthropods comprise lice, fleas, pentastomes, ticks and mites.

          • A total of 158 species/subspecies of parasitic arthropods infest Antarctic hosts.

          • Antarctica's extreme climate is a key limiting factor for nest-bound parasites.

          • Chewing lice are the most diverse parasite group, but are usually host specialists.

          • Ticks and fleas are host generalists with the most potential to vector pathogens.

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          Most cited references134

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          A measure of betweenness centrality based on random walks

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            ForceAtlas2, a Continuous Graph Layout Algorithm for Handy Network Visualization Designed for the Gephi Software

            Gephi is a network visualization software used in various disciplines (social network analysis, biology, genomics…). One of its key features is the ability to display the spatialization process, aiming at transforming the network into a map, and ForceAtlas2 is its default layout algorithm. The latter is developed by the Gephi team as an all-around solution to Gephi users’ typical networks (scale-free, 10 to 10,000 nodes). We present here for the first time its functioning and settings. ForceAtlas2 is a force-directed layout close to other algorithms used for network spatialization. We do not claim a theoretical advance but an attempt to integrate different techniques such as the Barnes Hut simulation, degree-dependent repulsive force, and local and global adaptive temperatures. It is designed for the Gephi user experience (it is a continuous algorithm), and we explain which constraints it implies. The algorithm benefits from much feedback and is developed in order to provide many possibilities through its settings. We lay out its complete functioning for the users who need a precise understanding of its behaviour, from the formulas to graphic illustration of the result. We propose a benchmark for our compromise between performance and quality. We also explain why we integrated its various features and discuss our design choices.
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              A comprehensive phylogeny of birds (Aves) using targeted next-generation DNA sequencing.

              Although reconstruction of the phylogeny of living birds has progressed tremendously in the last decade, the evolutionary history of Neoaves--a clade that encompasses nearly all living bird species--remains the greatest unresolved challenge in dinosaur systematics. Here we investigate avian phylogeny with an unprecedented scale of data: >390,000 bases of genomic sequence data from each of 198 species of living birds, representing all major avian lineages, and two crocodilian outgroups. Sequence data were collected using anchored hybrid enrichment, yielding 259 nuclear loci with an average length of 1,523 bases for a total data set of over 7.8 × 10(7) bases. Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses yielded highly supported and nearly identical phylogenetic trees for all major avian lineages. Five major clades form successive sister groups to the rest of Neoaves: (1) a clade including nightjars, other caprimulgiforms, swifts, and hummingbirds; (2) a clade uniting cuckoos, bustards, and turacos with pigeons, mesites, and sandgrouse; (3) cranes and their relatives; (4) a comprehensive waterbird clade, including all diving, wading, and shorebirds; and (5) a comprehensive landbird clade with the enigmatic hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) as the sister group to the rest. Neither of the two main, recently proposed Neoavian clades--Columbea and Passerea--were supported as monophyletic. The results of our divergence time analyses are congruent with the palaeontological record, supporting a major radiation of crown birds in the wake of the Cretaceous-Palaeogene (K-Pg) mass extinction.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl
                Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl
                International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife
                Elsevier
                2213-2244
                25 May 2020
                August 2020
                25 May 2020
                : 12
                : 275-290
                Affiliations
                [a ]Institute of Research and Rehabilitation of Marine Animals, Cariacica, Brazil
                [b ]Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand
                [c ]Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, Russia
                Author notes
                []Corresponding author. ralph_vanstreels@ 123456yahoo.com.br
                Article
                S2213-2244(20)30030-4
                10.1016/j.ijppaw.2020.03.007
                7569742
                06f27fd8-375a-467f-a4aa-be9da5c18692
                © 2020 The Authors

                This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

                History
                : 21 February 2020
                : 27 March 2020
                : 28 March 2020
                Categories
                Special section: ‘Parasites in Extreme Environments’

                arthropoda,carnivora,ecology,parasite,polar biology,seabird
                arthropoda, carnivora, ecology, parasite, polar biology, seabird

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