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      Astaxanthin Pretreatment Attenuates Hepatic Ischemia Reperfusion-Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy via the ROS/MAPK Pathway in Mice

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          Abstract

          Background: Hepatic ischemia reperfusion (IR) is an important issue in complex liver resection and liver transplantation. The aim of the present study was to determine the protective effect of astaxanthin (ASX), an antioxidant, on hepatic IR injury via the reactive oxygen species/mitogen-activated protein kinase (ROS/MAPK) pathway. Methods: Mice were randomized into a sham, IR, ASX or IR + ASX group. The mice received ASX at different doses (30 mg/kg or 60 mg/kg) for 14 days. Serum and tissue samples at 2 h, 8 h and 24 h after abdominal surgery were collected to assess alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), inflammation factors, ROS, and key proteins in the MAPK family. Results: ASX reduced the release of ROS and cytokines leading to inhibition of apoptosis and autophagy via down-regulation of the activated phosphorylation of related proteins in the MAPK family, such as P38 MAPK, JNK and ERK in this model of hepatic IR injury. Conclusion: Apoptosis and autophagy caused by hepatic IR injury were inhibited by ASX following a reduction in the release of ROS and inflammatory cytokines, and the relationship between the two may be associated with the inactivation of the MAPK family.

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          The crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis: where does this lead?

          Recent advances in the understanding of the molecular processes contributing to autophagy have provided insight into the relationship between autophagy and apoptosis. In contrast to the concept of "autophagic cell death," accumulating evidence suggests that autophagy serves a largely cytoprotective role in physiologically relevant conditions. The cytoprotective function of autophagy is mediated in many circumstances by negative modulation of apoptosis. Apoptotic signaling, in turn, serves to inhibit autophagy. While the mechanisms mediating the complex counter-regulation of apoptosis and autophagy are not yet fully understood, important points of crosstalk include the interactions between Beclin-1 and Bcl-2/Bcl-xL and between FADD and Atg5, caspase- and calpain-mediated cleavage of autophagy-related proteins, and autophagic degradation of caspases. Continued investigation of these and other means of crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy is necessary to elucidate the mechanisms controlling the balance between survival and death both under normal conditions and in diseases including cancer.
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            Myocardial necrosis induced by temporary occlusion of a coronary artery in the dog.

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              Hypoxia-induced alveolar epithelial-mesenchymal transition requires mitochondrial ROS and hypoxia-inducible factor 1.

              Patients with acute lung injury develop hypoxia, which may lead to lung dysfunction and aberrant tissue repair. Recent studies have suggested that epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) contributes to pulmonary fibrosis. We sought to determine whether hypoxia induces EMT in alveolar epithelial cells (AEC). We found that hypoxia induced the expression of alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA) and vimentin and decreased the expression of E-cadherin in transformed and primary human, rat, and mouse AEC, suggesting that hypoxia induces EMT in AEC. Both severe hypoxia and moderate hypoxia induced EMT. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger Euk-134 prevented hypoxia-induced EMT. Moreover, hypoxia-induced expression of alpha-SMA and vimentin was prevented in mitochondria-deficient rho(0) cells, which are incapable of ROS production during hypoxia. CoCl(2) and dimethyloxaloylglycine, two compounds that stabilize hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-alpha under normoxia, failed to induce alpha-SMA expression in AEC. Furthermore, overexpression of constitutively active HIF-1alpha did not induce alpha-SMA. However, loss of HIF-1alpha or HIF-2alpha abolished induction of alpha-SMA mRNA during hypoxia. Hypoxia increased the levels of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1, and preincubation of AEC with SB431542, an inhibitor of the TGF-beta1 type I receptor kinase, prevented the hypoxia-induced EMT, suggesting that the process was TGF-beta1 dependent. Furthermore, both ROS and HIF-alpha were necessary for hypoxia-induced TGF-beta1 upregulation. Accordingly, we have provided evidence that hypoxia induces EMT of AEC through mitochondrial ROS, HIF, and endogenous TGF-beta1 signaling.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Mar Drugs
                Mar Drugs
                marinedrugs
                Marine Drugs
                MDPI
                1660-3397
                27 May 2015
                June 2015
                : 13
                : 6
                : 3368-3387
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, China; E-Mails: sealjj@ 123456126.com (J.L.); fairywong04285@ 123456163.com (F.W.); gagaxyj@ 123456126.com (Y.X.); dai_yue@ 123456163.com (W.D.); cutking@ 123456126.com (K.C.); Lrk678@ 123456126.com (S.L.); klmn1334@ 123456sina.com (T.L.); sxzhengyuanyuan@ 123456126.com (Y.Z.); kennisren@ 123456hotmai.com (J.L.)
                [2 ]The First Clinical Medical College of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China; E-Mails: hellowangjr@ 123456163.com (J.W.); 15214327248@ 123456163.com (W.L.)
                [3 ]The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China; E-Mails: zyq937065339@ 123456163.com (Y.Z.); yinqin201011@ 123456163.com (Q.Y.)
                Author notes
                [* ]Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: 1334247ljj@ 123456tongji.edu.cn (Y.Z.); 1962cy_guo@ 123456tongji.edu.cn (C.G.); Tel.: +86-21-6630-0588 (Y.Z.); +86-21-6630-2535 (C.G.); Fax: +86-21-6630-3983 (C.G.).
                Article
                marinedrugs-13-03368
                10.3390/md13063368
                4483634
                26023842
                075e6518-b455-4245-81a3-01a965005d44
                © 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

                This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 23 March 2015
                : 19 May 2015
                Categories
                Article

                Pharmacology & Pharmaceutical medicine
                hepatic ischemia reperfusion,oxidative stress,astaxanthin,reactive oxygen species

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