An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality.

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The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism.

Peter Glick, Susan Fiske (1996)

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Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: the costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management.

Laurie A Rudman (1998)

Three experiments tested and extended recent theory regarding motivational influences on impression formation (S. T. Fiske & S. L. Neuberg, 1990; J. L. Hilton & J. M. Darley, 1991) in the context of an impression management dilemma that women face: Self-promotion may be instrumental for managing a competent impression, yet women who self-promote may suffer social reprisals for violating gender prescriptions to be modest. Experiment 1 investigated the influence of perceivers' goals on processes that inhibit stereotypical thinking, and reactions to counterstereotypical behavior. Experiments 2-3 extended these findings by including male targets. For female targets, self-promotion led to higher competence ratings but incurred social attraction and hireability costs unless perceivers were outcome-dependent males. For male targets, self-effacement decreased competence and hireability ratings, though its effects on social attraction were inconsistent.