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      Special Issue: Insects, Nematodes, and Their Symbiotic Bacteria

      editorial

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          Abstract

          This special issue contains articles that add to the ever-expanding toolbox of insect pathogenic nematodes (entomopathogenic nematodes; EPNs) as well articles that provide new insights into the mutualistic interaction between EPNs and their hosts. The study of natural infection models such as EPNs allows detailed insight into micro- and macro-evolutionary dynamics of innate immune reactions, including known but also emerging branches of innate immunity. Additional new insights into the kinetics of EPN infections are gained by increased spatiotemporal resolution of advanced transcriptome studies and live imaging.

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          Prostaglandins and Other Eicosanoids in Insects: Biosynthesis and Biological Actions

          David Stanley, Yonggyun Kim (2019)
          This essay reviews the discoveries, synthesis, and biological significance of prostaglandins (PGs) and other eicosanoids in insect biology. It presents the most current – and growing – understanding of the insect mechanism of PG biosynthesis, provides an updated treatment of known insect phospholipase A2 (PLA2), and details contemporary findings on the biological roles of PGs and other eicosanoids in insect physiology, including reproduction, fluid secretion, hormone actions in fat body, immunity and eicosanoid signaling and cross-talk in immunity. It completes the essay with a prospectus meant to illuminate research opportunities for interested readers. In more detail, cellular and secretory types of PLA2, similar to those known on the biomedical background, have been identified in insects and their roles in eicosanoid biosynthesis documented. It highlights recent findings showing that eicosanoid biosynthetic pathway in insects is not identical to the solidly established biomedical picture. The relatively low concentrations of arachidonic acid (AA) present in insect phospholipids (PLs) (< 0.1% in some species) indicate that PLA2 may hydrolyze linoleic acid (LA) as a precursor of eicosanoid biosynthesis. The free LA is desaturated and elongated into AA. Unlike vertebrates, AA is not oxidized by cyclooxygenase, but by a specific peroxidase called peroxinectin to produce PGH2, which is then isomerized into cell-specific PGs. In particular, PGE2 synthase recently identified converts PGH2 into PGE2. In the cross-talks with other immune mediators, eicosanoids act as downstream signals because any inhibition of eicosanoid signaling leads to significant immunosuppression. Because host immunosuppression favors pathogens and parasitoids, some entomopathogens evolved a PLA2 inhibitory strategy activity to express their virulence.
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            Effects of the Entomopathogenic Fungus Metarhizium anisopliae on the Mortality and Immune Response of Locusta migratoria

            Wuji Jiang, Yifan Peng, Jiayi Ye … (2019)
            Entomopathogenic fungi are the key regulators of insect populations and some of them are important biological agents used in integrated pest management strategies. Compared with their ability to become resistant to insecticides, insect pests do not easily become resistant to the infection by entomopathogenic fungi. In this study, we evaluated the mortality and immune response of the serious crop pest Locusta migratoria manilensis after exposure to a new entomopathogenic fungus strain, Metarhizium anisopliae CQMa421. M. anisopliae CQMa421 could effectively infect and kill the L. migratoria adults and nymphs. The locust LT50 under 1 × 108 conidia/mL concentration of M. anisopliae was much lower than that under conidial concentration 1 × 105 conidia/mL (i.e., 6.0 vs. 11.2 and 5.0 vs. 13.8 for adults and nymphs, respectively). The LC50 (log10) of M. anisopliae against locust adults and nymphs after 10 days was 5.2 and 5.6, respectively. Although the number of hemocytes in L. migratoria after exposure to M. anisopliae did not differ with that in the controls, the enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and prophenoloxidase (ProPO) did differ between the two treatments. The activities of both SOD and ProPO under the M. anisopliae treatment were lower than that in the controls, except for the ProPO activity at 72 h and the SOD activity at 96 h. Further, the expression of the L. migratoria immune-related genes defensin, spaetzle, and attacin differed after exposure to M. anisopliae for 24 h to 96 h. Taken together, this study indicated that infection with M. anisopliae CQMa421 could cause the death of L. migratoria by interacting with the immune responses of the host, demonstrating that this fungal strain of M. anisopliae can be an efficient biocontrol agent against L. migratoria.
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              Drosophila melanogaster Responses against Entomopathogenic Nematodes: Focus on Hemolymph Clots

              Alexis Dziedziech, Sai Shivankar, Ulrich Theopold (2020)
              Several insect innate immune mechanisms are activated in response to infection by entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs). In this review, we focus on the coagulation of hemolymph, which acts to stop bleeding after injury and prevent access of pathogens to the body cavity. After providing a general overview of invertebrate coagulation systems, we discuss recent findings in Drosophila melanogaster which demonstrate that clots protect against EPN infections. Detailed analysis at the cellular level provided insight into the kinetics of the secretion of Drosophila coagulation factors, including non-classical modes of secretion. Roughly, clot formation can be divided into a primary phase in which crosslinking of clot components depends on the activity of Drosophila transglutaminase and a secondary, phenoloxidase (PO)-dependent phase, characterized by further hardening and melanization of the clot matrix. These two phases appear to play distinct roles in two commonly used EPN infection models, namely Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema carpocapsae. Finally, we discuss the implications of the coevolution between parasites such as EPNs and their hosts for the dynamics of coagulation factor evolution.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Insects
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Insects
                Journal ID (publisher-id): insects
                Title: Insects
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2075-4450
                Publication date (Electronic): 28 August 2020
                Publication date Collection: September 2020
                Volume: 11
                Issue: 9
                Electronic Location Identifier: 577
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Molecular Biosciences, Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Svante Arrhenius Väg 20C, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden; alexis.dziedziech@ 123456su.se
                [2 ]Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 753/5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic; hyrsl@ 123456sci.muni.cz
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: uli.theopold@ 123456su.se
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4266-5727
                Article
                Publisher ID: insects-11-00577
                DOI: 10.3390/insects11090577
                PMC ID: 7564824
                PubMed ID: 32872298
                SO-VID: 0dfa4f9b-0708-46f7-8211-46adfe096e99
                Copyright © © 2020 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 18 August 2020
                Date accepted : 23 August 2020
                Categories
                Subject: Editorial

                Keywords: insect immunity,entomopathogenic nematodes,immunity,symbiotic bacteria,heterorhabditis,steinernema,photorhabdus,xenorhabdus
                Data availability:
                Keywords: insect immunity, entomopathogenic nematodes, immunity, symbiotic bacteria, heterorhabditis, steinernema, photorhabdus, xenorhabdus

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