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      In vitro Increased Respiratory Activity of Selected Oral Bacteria May Explain Competitive and Collaborative Interactions in the Oral Microbiome

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          Abstract

          Understanding the driving forces behind the shifts in the ecological balance of the oral microbiota will become essential for the future management and treatment of periodontitis. As the use of competitive approaches for modulating bacterial outgrowth is unexplored in the oral ecosystem, our study aimed to investigate both the associations among groups of functional compounds and the impact of individual substrates on selected members of the oral microbiome. We employed the Phenotype Microarray high-throughput technology to analyse the microbial cellular phenotypes of 15 oral bacteria. Multivariate statistical analysis was used to detect respiratory activity triggers and to assess similar metabolic activities. Carbon and nitrogen were relevant for the respiration of health-associated bacteria, explaining competitive interactions when grown in biofilms. Carbon, nitrogen, and peptides tended to decrease the respiratory activity of all pathobionts, but not significantly. None of the evaluated compounds significantly increased activity of pathobionts at both 24 and 48 h. Additionally, metabolite requirements of pathobionts were dissimilar, suggesting that collective modulation of their respiratory activity may be challenging. Flow cytometry indicated that the metabolic activity detected in the Biolog plates may not be a direct result of the number of bacterial cells. In addition, damage to the cell membrane may not influence overall respiratory activity. Our methodology confirmed previously reported competitive and collaborative interactions among bacterial groups, which could be used either as marker of health status or as targets for modulation of the oral environment.

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          The subgingival microbiome in health and periodontitis and its relationship with community biomass and inflammation.

          The goals of this study were to better understand the ecology of oral subgingival communities in health and periodontitis and elucidate the relationship between inflammation and the subgingival microbiome. Accordingly, we used 454-pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA gene libraries and quantitative PCR to characterize the subgingival microbiome of 22 subjects with chronic periodontitis. Each subject was sampled at two sites with similar periodontal destruction but differing in the presence of bleeding, a clinical indicator of increased inflammation. Communities in periodontitis were also compared with those from 10 healthy individuals. In periodontitis, presence of bleeding was not associated with different α-diversity or with a distinct microbiome, however, bleeding sites showed higher total bacterial load. In contrast, communities in health and periodontitis largely differed, with higher diversity and biomass in periodontitis. Shifts in community structure from health to periodontitis resembled ecological succession, with emergence of newly dominant taxa in periodontitis without replacement of primary health-associated species. That is, periodontitis communities had higher proportions of Spirochetes, Synergistetes, Firmicutes and Chloroflexi, among other taxa, while the proportions of Actinobacteria, particularly Actinomyces, were higher in health. Total Actinomyces load, however, remained constant from health to periodontitis. Moreover, an association existed between biomass and community structure in periodontitis, with the proportion of specific taxa correlating with bacterial load. Our study provides a global-scale framework for the ecological events in subgingival communities that underline the development of periodontitis. The association, in periodontitis, between inflammation, community biomass and community structure and their role in disease progression warrant further investigation.
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            Oral multispecies biofilm development and the key role of cell-cell distance.

            Growth of oral bacteria in situ requires adhesion to a surface because the constant flow of host secretions thwarts the ability of planktonic cells to grow before they are swallowed. Therefore, oral bacteria evolved to form biofilms on hard tooth surfaces and on soft epithelial tissues, which often contain multiple bacterial species. Because these biofilms are easy to study, they have become the paradigm of multispecies biofilms. In this Review we describe the factors involved in the formation of these biofilms, including the initial adherence to the oral tissues and teeth, cooperation between bacterial species in the biofilm, signalling between the bacteria and its role in pathogenesis, and the transfer of DNA between bacteria. In all these aspects distance between cells of different species is integral for oral biofilm growth.
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              Xenobiotics shape the physiology and gene expression of the active human gut microbiome.

              The human gut contains trillions of microorganisms that influence our health by metabolizing xenobiotics, including host-targeted drugs and antibiotics. Recent efforts have characterized the diversity of this host-associated community, but it remains unclear which microorganisms are active and what perturbations influence this activity. Here, we combine flow cytometry, 16S rRNA gene sequencing, and metatranscriptomics to demonstrate that the gut contains a distinctive set of active microorganisms, primarily Firmicutes. Short-term exposure to a panel of xenobiotics significantly affected the physiology, structure, and gene expression of this active gut microbiome. Xenobiotic-responsive genes were found across multiple bacterial phyla, encoding antibiotic resistance, drug metabolism, and stress response pathways. These results demonstrate the power of moving beyond surveys of microbial diversity to better understand metabolic activity, highlight the unintended consequences of xenobiotics, and suggest that attempts at personalized medicine should consider interindividual variations in the active human gut microbiome. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Cell Infect Microbiol
                Front Cell Infect Microbiol
                Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol.
                Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                2235-2988
                07 June 2017
                2017
                : 7
                : 235
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology, Ghent University Ghent, Belgium
                [2] 2Department of Oral Health Sciences KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
                [3] 3Colgate-Palmolive Technology Center Piscataway, NJ, United States
                Author notes

                Edited by: Lorenza Putignani, Bambino Gesù Ospedale Pediatrico (IRCCS), Italy

                Reviewed by: Valerio Iebba, Sapienza Università di Roma, Italy; Nick Stephen Jakubovics, Newcastle University, United Kingdom; Parish Paymon Sedghizadeh, University of Southern California, United States

                *Correspondence: Nico Boon nico.boon@ 123456UGent.be

                †These authors have contributed equally to this work.

                Article
                10.3389/fcimb.2017.00235
                5461333
                28638806
                0e7577af-4f1c-48ed-a025-d845a936f4d4
                Copyright © 2017 Hernandez-Sanabria, Slomka, Herrero, Kerckhof, Zaidel, Teughels and Boon.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 06 December 2016
                : 22 May 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 3, Equations: 0, References: 69, Pages: 12, Words: 8337
                Funding
                Funded by: Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek 10.13039/501100003130
                Funded by: Colgate-Palmolive Company 10.13039/100004368
                Funded by: KU Leuven 10.13039/501100004040
                Categories
                Microbiology
                Original Research

                Infectious disease & Microbiology
                oral pathobionts,health-associated bacteria,commensal bacteria,phenotype microarray,respiratory activity,multivariate statistical analysis

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