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      The rubber foot illusion

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          Abstract

          Background

          Lower-limb amputation causes the individual a huge functional impairment due to the lack of adequate sensory perception from the missing limb. The development of an augmenting sensory feedback device able to restore some of the missing information from the amputated limb may improve embodiment, control and acceptability of the prosthesis.

          Findings

          In this work we transferred the Rubber Hand Illusion paradigm to the lower limb. We investigated the possibility of promoting body ownership of a fake foot, in a series of experiments fashioned after the RHI using matched or mismatched (vibrotactile) stimulation. The results, collected from 19 healthy subjects, demonstrated that it is possible to elicit the perception of possessing a rubber foot when modality-matched stimulations are provided synchronously on the biological foot and to the corresponding rubber foot areas. Results also proved that it is possible to enhance the illusion even with modality-mismatched stimulation, even though illusion was lower than in case of modality-matched stimulation.

          Conclusions

          We demonstrated the possibility of promoting a Rubber Foot Illusion with both matched and mismatched stimulation.

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          Touching a rubber hand: feeling of body ownership is associated with activity in multisensory brain areas.

          H. Ehrsson, Nicholas P Holmes, Richard E. Passingham (2005)
          In the "rubber-hand illusion," the sight of brushing of a rubber hand at the same time as brushing of the person's own hidden hand is sufficient to produce a feeling of ownership of the fake hand. We shown previously that this illusion is associated with activity in the multisensory areas, most notably the ventral premotor cortex (Ehrsson et al., 2004). However, it remains to be demonstrated that this illusion does not simply reflect the dominant role of vision and that the premotor activity does not reflect a visual representation of an object near the hand. To address these issues, we introduce a somatic rubber-hand illusion. The experimenter moved the blindfolded participant's left index finger so that it touched the fake hand, and simultaneously, he touched the participant's real right hand, synchronizing the touches as perfectly as possible. After approximately 9.7 s, this stimulation elicited an illusion that one was touching one's own hand. We scanned brain activity during this illusion and two control conditions, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Activity in the ventral premotor cortices, intraparietal cortices, and the cerebellum was associated with the illusion of touching one's own hand. Furthermore, the rated strength of the illusion correlated with the degree of premotor and cerebellar activity. This finding suggests that the activity in these areas reflects the detection of congruent multisensory signals from one's own body, rather than of visual representations. We propose that this could be the mechanism for the feeling of body ownership.
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            Embodiment, ownership and disownership.

            Frédérique de Vignemont (2011)
            There are two main pathways to investigate the sense of body ownership, (i) through the study of the conditions of embodiment for an object to be experienced as one's own and (ii) through the analysis of the deficits in patients who experience a body part as alien. Here, I propose that E is embodied if some properties of E are processed in the same way as the properties of one's body. However, one must distinguish among different types of embodiment, and only self-specific embodiment can lead to feelings of ownership. I address issues such as the functional role and the dynamics of embodiment, degrees and measures of ownership, and shared body representations between self and others. I then analyse the interaction between ownership and disownership. On the one hand, I show that there is no evidence that in the Rubber Hand Illusion, the rubber hand replaces the biological hand. On the other hand, I argue that the sense of disownership experienced by patients towards their body part cannot be reduced to the mere lack of ownership. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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              Upper limb amputees can be induced to experience a rubber hand as their own

              H. Ehrsson, Birgitta Rosén, Anita Stockselius … (2008)
              We describe how upper limb amputees can be made to experience a rubber hand as part of their own body. This was accomplished by applying synchronous touches to the stump, which was out of view, and to the index finger of a rubber hand, placed in full view (26 cm medial to the stump). This elicited an illusion of sensing touch on the artificial hand, rather than on the stump and a feeling of ownership of the rubber hand developed. This effect was supported by quantitative subjective reports in the form of questionnaires, behavioural data in the form of misreaching in a pointing task when asked to localize the position of the touch, and physiological evidence obtained by skin conductance responses when threatening the hand prosthesis. Our findings outline a simple method for transferring tactile sensations from the stump to a prosthetic limb by tricking the brain, thereby making an important contribution to the field of neuroprosthetics where a major goal is to develop artificial limbs that feel like a real parts of the body.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Simona Crea: s.crea@sssup.it
                Marco D’Alonzo: m.dalonzo@sssup.it
                Nicola Vitiello: n.vitiello@sssup.it
                Christian Cipriani: ch.cipriani@sssup.it
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): J Neuroeng Rehabil
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): J Neuroeng Rehabil
                Title: Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation
                Publisher: BioMed Central (London )
                ISSN (Electronic): 1743-0003
                Publication date (Electronic): 4 September 2015
                Publication date PMC-release: 4 September 2015
                Publication date Collection: 2015
                Volume: 12
                Electronic Location Identifier: 77
                Affiliations
                [ ]The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, viale Rinaldo Piaggio, Pontedera (PI), Italy
                [ ]Don Carlo Gnocchi Foundation, via di Scandicci, Firenze (FI), 269 Italy
                Article
                Publisher ID: 69
                DOI: 10.1186/s12984-015-0069-6
                PMC ID: 4559902
                PubMed ID: 26341285
                SO-VID: 0f89401a-ae36-49a7-812f-74e977537c2e
                Copyright © © Crea et al. 2015
                License:

                Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

                History
                Date received : 20 February 2015
                Date accepted : 28 August 2015
                Categories
                Subject: Short Report
                Custom metadata
                issue-copyright-statement © The Author(s) 2015

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Neurosciences
                Keywords: rubber foot illusion,augmenting sensory feedback,lower-limb prostheses,amputees
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Neurosciences
                Keywords: rubber foot illusion, augmenting sensory feedback, lower-limb prostheses, amputees

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