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      Pre‐eclampsia and long‐term health outcomes for mother and infant: an umbrella review

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          Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement.

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            Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test

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              Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis.

              The extent of heterogeneity in a meta-analysis partly determines the difficulty in drawing overall conclusions. This extent may be measured by estimating a between-study variance, but interpretation is then specific to a particular treatment effect metric. A test for the existence of heterogeneity exists, but depends on the number of studies in the meta-analysis. We develop measures of the impact of heterogeneity on a meta-analysis, from mathematical criteria, that are independent of the number of studies and the treatment effect metric. We derive and propose three suitable statistics: H is the square root of the chi2 heterogeneity statistic divided by its degrees of freedom; R is the ratio of the standard error of the underlying mean from a random effects meta-analysis to the standard error of a fixed effect meta-analytic estimate, and I2 is a transformation of (H) that describes the proportion of total variation in study estimates that is due to heterogeneity. We discuss interpretation, interval estimates and other properties of these measures and examine them in five example data sets showing different amounts of heterogeneity. We conclude that H and I2, which can usually be calculated for published meta-analyses, are particularly useful summaries of the impact of heterogeneity. One or both should be presented in published meta-analyses in preference to the test for heterogeneity. Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology
                BJOG: Int J Obstet Gy
                Wiley
                1470-0328
                1471-0528
                August 2021
                March 23 2021
                August 2021
                : 128
                : 9
                : 1421-1430
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Health Sciences School of Sciences European University Cyprus Nicosia Cyprus
                [2 ]Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry Queen Mary University of London London UK
                Article
                10.1111/1471-0528.16683
                33638891
                1061134a-3966-4002-8638-74927a39dc9c
                © 2021

                http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor

                http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1

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