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      Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intake by Age, Gender, and Pregnancy Status in the United States: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2014

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          Abstract

          Despite the importance of n-3 fatty acids for health, intakes remain below recommended levels. The objective of this study was to provide an updated assessment of fish and n-3 fatty acid intake (i.e., eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and EPA+DHA) in the United States using the 2003–2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data ( n = 45,347)). Over this survey period, toddlers, children, and adolescents (aged 1–19) had significantly lower n-3 fatty acid intake ( p < 0.001) compared to adults and seniors, which remained significant after adjusting for caloric intake. Females demonstrated lower n-3 fatty acid intake than males ( p < 0.001), with adult and senior women having significantly lower intakes compared to men in the same age categories ( p < 0.001) after adjustment for energy intake. Women also consumed less fish than men (5.8 versus 6.1 servings/month, p < 0.001). The estimated intakes of n-3 fatty acids in pregnant women did not differ from non-pregnant women ( p = 0.6 for EPA+DHA), although pregnant women reported consuming less high n-3 fatty acid-containing fish than non-pregnant women (1.8 versus 2.6 servings/month, p < 0.001). Our findings indicate that subgroups of the population may be at higher risk of n-3 fatty acid intakes below recommended levels.

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          Prevalence of Obesity Among Adults and Youth: United States, 2015-2016.

          Obesity is associated with serious health risks. Monitoring obesity prevalence is relevant for public health programs that focus on reducing or preventing obesity. Between 2003–2004 and 2013–2014, there were no significant changes in childhood obesity prevalence, but adults showed an increasing trend. This report provides the most recent national estimates from 2015–2016 on obesity prevalence by sex, age, and race and Hispanic origin, and overall estimates from 1999–2000 through 2015–2016.
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            National health and nutrition examination survey: analytic guidelines, 1999-2010.

            Background-Analytic guide lines were first created in 1996 to assist data users in analyzing data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III),conducted from 1988 to 1994 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Center for Health Statistics. NHANES became a continuous annual survey in 1999, with data released to the public in 2-year intervals. In 2002, 2004, and 2006, guidelines were created and posted on the NHANES website to assist analysts in understanding the key issues related to analyzing data from 1999 onward. This report builds on these previous guidelines and provides the first comprehensive summary of analytic guidelines for the 1999-2010 NHANES data. Objectives-This report provides general guidelines for researchers in analyzing 1999-2010 NHANES publicly released data. Information is presented on key issues related to NHANES data, including sample design, demographic variables, and combining survey cycles. Guidance is also provided on data analysis, including the use of appropriate survey weights, calculating variance estimations, determining the reliability of estimates, age adjustment, and computing population counts.
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              Dietary omega 3 fatty acids and the developing brain.

              The omega-3 fatty acids are essential dietary nutrients and one of their important roles is providing the fatty acid with 22 carbons and 6 double bonds known as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for nervous tissue growth and function. Inadequate intakes of omega-3 fatty acids decrease DHA and increase omega-6 fatty acids in the brain. Decreased DHA in the developing brain leads to deficits in neurogenesis, neurotransmitter metabolism, and altered learning and visual function in animals. Western diets are low in omega-3 fatty acids, including the 18 carbon omega-3 fatty acid alpha linolenic acid found mainly in plant oils, and DHA, which is found mainly in fish. The DHA status of the newborn and breast-fed infant depends on the maternal intake of DHA and varies widely. Epidemiological studies have linked low maternal DHA to increased risk of poor child neural development. Intervention studies have shown improving maternal DHA nutrition decreases the risk of poor infant and child visual and neural development. Thus, sufficient evidence is available to conclude that maternal fatty acid nutrition is important to DHA transfer to the infant before and after birth, with short and long-term implications for neural function. However, genetic variation in genes encoding fatty acid desaturases also influence essential fatty acid metabolism, and may increase requirements in some individuals. Consideration of omega-3 fatty acid to include brain development, optimizing omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in gestation and lactation, and in fatty acid nutrition support for intravenous and formula-fed neonates is important.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Nutrients
                Nutrients
                nutrients
                Nutrients
                MDPI
                2072-6643
                15 January 2019
                January 2019
                : 11
                : 1
                : 177
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Pediatrics, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA; maranda.thompson@ 123456unmc.edu (M.T.); alanders@ 123456unmc.edu (A.A.-B.)
                [2 ]College of Public Health, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA; nicholas.hein@ 123456unmc.edu (N.H.); lmsmith@ 123456unmc.edu (L.M.S.); karlstessy.bisselou@ 123456unmc.edu (K.S.B.); adams.kusiappiah@ 123456unmc.edu (A.K.A.)
                [3 ]College of Allied Health Professions, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA; ckhanson@ 123456unmc.edu
                [4 ]Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; richterck@ 123456email.arizona.edu (C.K.R.); skulasray@ 123456email.arizona.edu (A.C.S.-R.)
                [5 ]Department of Nutritional Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; pmk3@ 123456psu.edu
                [6 ]Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: tmnordgren@ 123456gmail.com ; Tel.: +1-951-827-3148
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5658-6173
                Article
                nutrients-11-00177
                10.3390/nu11010177
                6356780
                30650613
                106ee584-d589-4a0a-b6f4-9049a85fcdab
                © 2019 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 13 December 2018
                : 11 January 2019
                Categories
                Article

                Nutrition & Dietetics
                eicosapentaenoic acid,docosahexaenoic acid,omega-3 fatty acids,lifespan,oily fish,fish oil supplements

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