CD134- and CD137-primed CD8 T cells mount powerful effector responses upon recall, but even without recall these dual-costimulated T cells respond to signal 3 cytokines such as IL-12. We searched for alternative signal 3 receptor pathways and found the IL-1 family member IL-36R. Although IL-36 alone did not stimulate effector CD8 T cells, in combination with IL-12, or more surprisingly IL-2, it induced striking and rapid TCR-independent IFN-γ synthesis. To understand how signal 3 responses functioned in dual-costimulated T cells we showed that IL-2 induced IL-36R gene expression in a JAK/STAT-dependent manner. These data help delineate a sequential stimulation process where IL-2 conditioning must precede IL-36 for IFN-γ synthesis. Importantly, this responsive state was transient and functioned only in effector T cells capable of aerobic glycolysis. Specifically, as the effector T cells metabolized glucose and consumed O2, they also retained potential to respond through IL-36R. This suggests that T cells use innate receptor pathways such as the IL-36R/axis when programmed for aerobic glycolysis. To explore a function for IL-36R in vivo, we showed that dual costimulation therapy reduced B16 melanoma tumor growth while increasing IL-36R gene expression. In summary, cytokine therapy to eliminate tumors may target effector T cells, even outside of TCR specificity, as long as the effectors are in the correct metabolic state.
