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      Platelet-rich plasma improves chronic inflammatory pain by inhibiting PKM2-mediated aerobic glycolysis in astrocytes

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          Abstract

          Background

          Astrocytes are highly glycolytic cells that play a crucial role in chronic pain. Recently it has been found that inflammation and metabolism are related to the inflammatory stimuli closely that cause cellular metabolic changes. Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) is a critical metabolic kinase in aerobic glycolysis or the Warburg effect. Besides, it also plays a crucial role in cell proliferation and signal transduction, but its role in astrocytes is still unclear.

          Methods

          The chronic inflammatory pain model was set up by intraplantar injection of complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats as well as the cell model was constructed by lipopolysaccharide-treated primary astrocytes. Von Frey filament stimulation was used to continuously observe the changes of pain behavior in rats after modeling. Then, immunofluorescence staining and Western blot tests were used to observe the expression levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), pyruvate kinase (PKM2), signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3) and high mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB1). After that, specific kits measured lactate contents. Finally, we observed the platelet-rich plasma’s (PRP) effect on mechanical hyperalgesia in rats with inflammatory pain induced by CFA and its effect on related signal molecules.

          Results

          We found that in the CFA-induced inflammatory pain model, astrocytes were significantly activated, GFAP was increased, PKM2 was significantly up-regulated, and the glycolytic product lactate was increased. Also, intrathecal injection of PRP increased the pain threshold, inhibited the activation of astrocytes, and decreased the expression of PKM2 and aerobic glycolysis; in LPS-activated primary astrocytes as an in vitro model, we found PKM2 translocation activationSTAT3 signaling resulted in sustained activation of astrocyte marker GFAP, and the expression level and localization of p-STAT3 were correlated with PKM2. PRP could inhibit the activation of astrocytes, reduce the expression of PKM2 and the expression levels of glycolysis and GFAP, GLUT1, and p-STAT3 in astrocytes.

          Conclusions

          Our findings suggest PKM2 not only plays a glycolytic role in astrocytes, but also plays a crucial role in astrocyte-activated signaling pathways, and PRP attenuates CFA induced inflammatory pain by inhibiting aerobic glycolysis in astrocytes, providing a new therapeutic target for the treatment of inflammatory pain.

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          An RNA-sequencing transcriptome and splicing database of glia, neurons, and vascular cells of the cerebral cortex.

          Ye Zhang, Kenian Chen, Steven A Sloan … (2014)
          The major cell classes of the brain differ in their developmental processes, metabolism, signaling, and function. To better understand the functions and interactions of the cell types that comprise these classes, we acutely purified representative populations of neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursor cells, newly formed oligodendrocytes, myelinating oligodendrocytes, microglia, endothelial cells, and pericytes from mouse cerebral cortex. We generated a transcriptome database for these eight cell types by RNA sequencing and used a sensitive algorithm to detect alternative splicing events in each cell type. Bioinformatic analyses identified thousands of new cell type-enriched genes and splicing isoforms that will provide novel markers for cell identification, tools for genetic manipulation, and insights into the biology of the brain. For example, our data provide clues as to how neurons and astrocytes differ in their ability to dynamically regulate glycolytic flux and lactate generation attributable to unique splicing of PKM2, the gene encoding the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase. This dataset will provide a powerful new resource for understanding the development and function of the brain. To ensure the widespread distribution of these datasets, we have created a user-friendly website (http://web.stanford.edu/group/barres_lab/brain_rnaseq.html) that provides a platform for analyzing and comparing transciption and alternative splicing profiles for various cell classes in the brain. Copyright © 2014 the authors 0270-6474/14/3411929-19$15.00/0.
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            Microglial M1/M2 polarization and metabolic states.

            AG Stewart, PM Beart, Ruben G. Orihuela … (2016)
            Microglia are critical nervous system-specific immune cells serving as tissue-resident macrophages influencing brain development, maintenance of the neural environment, response to injury and repair. As influenced by their environment, microglia assume a diversity of phenotypes and retain the capability to shift functions to maintain tissue homeostasis. In comparison with peripheral macrophages, microglia demonstrate similar and unique features with regards to phenotype polarization, allowing for innate immunological functions. Microglia can be stimulated by LPS or IFN-γ to an M1 phenotype for expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines or by IL-4/IL-13 to an M2 phenotype for resolution of inflammation and tissue repair. Increasing evidence suggests a role of metabolic reprogramming in the regulation of the innate inflammatory response. Studies using peripheral immune cells demonstrate that polarization to an M1 phenotype is often accompanied by a shift in cells from oxidative phosphorylation to aerobic glycolysis for energy production. More recently, the link between polarization and mitochondrial energy metabolism has been considered in microglia. Under these conditions, energy demands would be associated with functional activities and cell survival and thus, may serve to influence the contribution of microglia activation to various neurodegenerative conditions. This review examines the polarization states of microglia and their relationship to mitochondrial metabolism. Additional supporting experimental data are provided to demonstrate mitochondrial metabolic shifts in primary microglia and the BV-2 microglia cell line induced under LPS (M1) and IL-4/IL-13 (M2) polarization.
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              Pyruvate kinase M2 regulates gene transcription by acting as a protein kinase.

              Xueliang Gao, Haizhen Wang, Jenny Yang … (2012)
              Pyruvate kinase isoform M2 (PKM2) is a glycolysis enzyme catalyzing conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate by transferring a phosphate from PEP to ADP. We report here that PKM2 localizes to the cell nucleus. The levels of nuclear PKM2 correlate with cell proliferation. PKM2 activates transcription of MEK5 by phosphorylating stat3 at Y705. In vitro phosphorylation assays show that PKM2 is a protein kinase using PEP as a phosphate donor. ADP competes with the protein substrate binding, indicating that the substrate may bind to the ADP site of PKM2. Our experiments suggest that PKM2 dimer is an active protein kinase, while the tetramer is an active pyruvate kinase. Expression of a PKM2 mutant that exists as a dimer promotes cell proliferation, indicating that protein kinase activity of PKM2 plays a role in promoting cell proliferation. Our study reveals an important link between metabolism alteration and gene expression during tumor transformation and progression. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Ann Transl Med
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Ann Transl Med
                Journal ID (publisher-id): ATM
                Title: Annals of Translational Medicine
                Publisher: AME Publishing Company
                ISSN (Print): 2305-5839
                ISSN (Electronic): 2305-5847
                Publication date (Print and electronic): November 2020
                Publication date (Print): November 2020
                Volume: 8
                Issue: 21
                Electronic Location Identifier: 1456
                Affiliations
                [1]Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Management, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University , Suzhou, China
                Author notes

                Contributions: (I) Conception and design: LN Wang; (II) Administrative support: None; (III) Provision of study materials or patients: None; (IV) Collection and assembly of data: X Wei, XH Jin, XW Meng; (V) Data analysis and interpretation: X Wei, XH Jin, XW Meng, J Hua, FH Ji, JP Yang; (VI) Manuscript writing: All authors; (VII) Final approval of manuscript: All authors.

                [#]

                These authors contributed equally to this work.

                Correspondence to: Jian-Ping Yang; Li-Na Wang. Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Management, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China. Email: szyangjp@ 123456126.com ; Wangln@ 123456suda.edu.cn .
                Article
                Publisher ID: atm-08-21-1456
                DOI: 10.21037/atm-20-6502
                PMC ID: 7723564
                PubMed ID: 33313201
                SO-VID: 12693ae0-dd2c-4ac3-847b-b00a1d2db311
                Copyright © 2020 Annals of Translational Medicine. All rights reserved.
                License:

                Open Access Statement: This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits the non-commercial replication and distribution of the article with the strict proviso that no changes or edits are made and the original work is properly cited (including links to both the formal publication through the relevant DOI and the license). See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0.

                History
                Date received : 07 September 2020
                Date accepted : 19 October 2020
                Categories
                Subject: Original Article

                Keywords: platelet-rich plasma (prp),chronic inflammatory pain,aerobic glycolysis,pyruvate kinase m2 (pkm2)
                Data availability:
                Keywords: platelet-rich plasma (prp), chronic inflammatory pain, aerobic glycolysis, pyruvate kinase m2 (pkm2)

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