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      Fine Particulate Matter Constituents and Cardiopulmonary Mortality in a Heavily Polluted Chinese City

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          Abstract

          Background: Although ambient fine particulate matter (PM 2.5; particulate matter ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter) has been linked to adverse human health effects, the chemical constituents that cause harm are unknown. To our knowledge, the health effects of PM 2.5 constituents have not been reported for a developing country.

          Objectives: We examined the short-term association between PM 2.5 constituents and daily mortality in Xi’an, a heavily polluted Chinese city.

          Methods: We obtained daily mortality data and daily concentrations of PM 2.5, organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), and 10 water-soluble ions for 1 January 2004 through 31 December 2008. We also measured concentrations of fifteen elements 1 January 2006 through 31 December 2008. We analyzed the data using over-dispersed generalized linear Poisson models.

          Results: During the study period, the mean daily average concentration of PM 2.5 in Xi’an was 182.2 µg/m 3. Major contributors to PM 2.5 mass included OC, EC, sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium. After adjustment for PM 2.5 mass, we found significant positive associations of total, cardiovascular, or respiratory mortality with OC, EC, ammonium, nitrate, chlorine ion, chlorine, and nickel for at least 1 lag day. Nitrate demonstrated stronger associations with total and cardiovascular mortality than PM 2.5 mass. For a 1-day lag, interquartile range increases in PM 2.5 mass and nitrate (114.9 and 15.4 µg/m 3, respectively) were associated with 1.8% [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.8%, 2.8%] and 3.8% (95% CI: 1.7%, 5.9%) increases in total mortality.

          Conclusions: Our findings suggest that PM 2.5 constituents from the combustion of fossil fuel may have an appreciable influence on the health effects attributable to PM 2.5 in Xi’an.

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          Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with daily mortality in six U.S. cities.

          F Laden, L Neas, D W Dockery … (2000)
          Previously we reported that fine particle mass (particulate matter [less than and equal to] 2.5 microm; PM(2.5)), which is primarily from combustion sources, but not coarse particle mass, which is primarily from crustal sources, was associated with daily mortality in six eastern U.S. cities (1). In this study, we used the elemental composition of size-fractionated particles to identify several distinct source-related fractions of fine particles and examined the association of these fractions with daily mortality in each of the six cities. Using specific rotation factor analysis for each city, we identified a silicon factor classified as soil and crustal material, a lead factor classified as motor vehicle exhaust, a selenium factor representing coal combustion, and up to two additional factors. We extracted daily counts of deaths from National Center for Health Statistics records and estimated city-specific associations of mortality with each source factor by Poisson regression, adjusting for time trends, weather, and the other source factors. Combined effect estimates were calculated as the inverse variance weighted mean of the city-specific estimates. In the combined analysis, a 10 microg/m(3) increase in PM(2.5) from mobile sources accounted for a 3.4% increase in daily mortality [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.7-5.2%], and the equivalent increase in fine particles from coal combustion sources accounted for a 1.1% increase [CI, 0.3-2.0%). PM(2.5) crustal particles were not associated with daily mortality. These results indicate that combustion particles in the fine fraction from mobile and coal combustion sources, but not fine crustal particles, are associated with increased mortality.
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            Cardiovascular mortality and exposure to airborne fine particulate matter and cigarette smoke: shape of the exposure-response relationship.

            C. Pope, Richard Burnett, Daniel Krewski … (2009)
            Fine particulate matter exposure from both ambient air pollution and secondhand cigarette smoke has been associated with larger risks of cardiovascular mortality than would be expected on the basis of linear extrapolations of the relative risks from active smoking. This study directly assessed the shape of the exposure-response relationship between cardiovascular mortality and fine particulates from cigarette smoke and ambient air pollution. Prospective cohort data for >1 million adults were collected by the American Cancer Society as part of the Cancer Prevention Study II in 1982. Cox proportional hazards regression models that included variables for increments of cigarette smoking and variables to control for education, marital status, body mass, alcohol consumption, occupational exposures, and diet were used to describe the mortality experience of the cohort. Adjusted relative risks of mortality were plotted against estimated average daily dose of fine particulate matter from cigarette smoke along with comparison estimates for secondhand cigarette smoke and air pollution. There were substantially increased cardiovascular mortality risks at very low levels of active cigarette smoking and smaller but significant excess risks even at the much lower exposure levels associated with secondhand cigarette smoke and ambient air pollution. Relatively low levels of fine particulate exposure from either air pollution or secondhand cigarette smoke are sufficient to induce adverse biological responses increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease mortality. The exposure-response relationship between cardiovascular disease mortality and fine particulate matter is relatively steep at low levels of exposure and flattens out at higher exposures.
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              The Effect of Fine and Coarse Particulate Air Pollution on Mortality: A National Analysis

              Antonella Zanobetti, Joel Schwartz (2009)
              Background Although many studies have examined the effects of air pollution on mortality, data limitations have resulted in fewer studies of both particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of ≤ 2.5 μm (PM2.5; fine particles) and of coarse particles (particles with an aerodynamic diameter > 2.5 and < 10 μm; PM coarse). We conducted a national, multicity time-series study of the acute effect of PM2.5 and PM coarse on the increased risk of death for all causes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, and respiratory mortality for the years 1999–2005. Method We applied a city- and season-specific Poisson regression in 112 U.S. cities to examine the association of mean (day of death and previous day) PM2.5 and PM coarse with daily deaths. We combined the city-specific estimates using a random effects approach, in total, by season and by region. Results We found a 0.98% increase [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.75–1.22] in total mortality, a 0.85% increase (95% CI, 0.46–1.24) in CVD, a 1.18% increase (95% CI, 0.48–1.89) in MI, a 1.78% increase (95% CI, 0.96–2.62) in stroke, and a 1.68% increase (95% CI, 1.04–2.33) in respiratory deaths for a 10-μg/m3 increase in 2-day averaged PM2.5. The effects were higher in spring. For PM coarse, we found significant but smaller increases for all causes analyzed. Conclusions We conclude that our analysis showed an increased risk of mortality for all and specific causes associated with PM2.5, and the risks are higher than what was previously observed for PM10. In addition, coarse particles are also associated with more deaths.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Environ Health Perspect
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Environ. Health Perspect
                Journal ID (publisher-id): EHP
                Title: Environmental Health Perspectives
                Publisher: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
                ISSN (Print): 0091-6765
                ISSN (Electronic): 1552-9924
                Publication date (Electronic): 03 January 2012
                Publication date (Print): March 2012
                Volume: 120
                Issue: 3
                Pages: 373-378
                Affiliations
                [1 ]State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology (SKLLQG), Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi’an, China
                [2 ]Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
                [3 ]School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
                [4 ]G_RI oCE (Research Institute for the Changing Global Environment) and Fudan Tyndall Centre, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
                Author notes
                Address correspondence to H. Kan, P.O. Box 249, 130 Dong-An Rd., Shanghai 200032, China. E-mail: cao@ 123456loess.llqg.ac.cn
                Article
                Publisher ID: ehp.1103671
                DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1103671
                PMC ID: 3295342
                PubMed ID: 22389181
                SO-VID: 130dd5ee-07cf-4614-8c0a-00b13dd3af5e
                Copyright statement: Copyright @ 2011
                License:

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 11 March 2011
                Date accepted : 03 January 2012
                Categories
                Subject: Research

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: time-series studies,air pollution,chemical constituents,fine particulate matter,mortality
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: time-series studies, air pollution, chemical constituents, fine particulate matter, mortality

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