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      Past and Ongoing Tsetse and Animal Trypanosomiasis Control Operations in Five African Countries: A Systematic Review

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          Abstract

          Background

          Control operations targeting Animal African Trypanosomiasis and its primary vector, the tsetse, were covering approximately 128,000 km 2 of Africa in 2001, which is a mere 1.3% of the tsetse infested area. Although extensive trypanosomiasis and tsetse (T&T) control operations have been running since the beginning of the 20 th century, Animal African Trypanosomiasis is still a major constraint of livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa.

          Methodology/Principal Findings

          We performed a systematic review of the existing literature describing T&T control programmes conducted in a selection of five African countries, namely Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Uganda and Zambia, between 1980 and 2015. Sixty-eight documents were eventually selected from those identified by the database search. This was supplemented with information gathered through semi-structured interviews conducted with twelve key informants recruited in the study countries and selected based on their experience and knowledge of T&T control. The combined information from these two sources was used to describe the inputs, processes and outcomes from 23 major T&T control programmes implemented in the study countries. Although there were some data gaps, involvement of the target communities and sustainability of the control activities were identified as the two main issues faced by these programmes. Further, there was a lack of evaluation of these control programmes, as well as a lack of a standardised methodology to conduct such evaluations.

          Conclusions/Significance

          Past experiences demonstrated that coordinated and sustained control activities require careful planning, and evidence of successes, failures and setbacks from past control programmes represent a mine of information. As there is a lack of evaluation of these programmes, these data have not been fully exploited for the design, analyses and justification of future control programmes.

          Author Summary

          Despite decades of control efforts targeting Animal African Trypanosomiasis, its distribution has hardly receded and the situation in sub-Saharan Africa has recently been described as “serious and deteriorating”. This disease of livestock affects farmers’ livelihood and welfare, food security and poses a threat to public health. Our work was primarily based on a review of available information on present and past control programmes targeting Animal African Trypanosomiasis and its vector, the tsetse, supplemented with interviews with key informants. We described and contextualised 23 well documented programmes implemented in five countries (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Uganda and Zambia). We summarised and discussed the issues commonly faced by these programmes and identified settings and circumstances which are more favourable for successful control activities. This work can contribute to the design and implementation of future programmes by highlighting the knowledge gained from past activities and experiences of those involved, and making recommendations as to how this can be utilised further.

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          Most cited references59

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          Eliminating Human African Trypanosomiasis: Where Do We Stand and What Comes Next>

          While the number of new detected cases of HAT is falling, say the authors, sleeping sickness could suffer the "punishment of success," receiving lower priority by public and private health institutions.
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            Tsetse flies: their biology and control using area-wide integrated pest management approaches.

            Tsetse flies are the cyclical vectors of trypanosomes, the causative agents of 'sleeping sickness' or human African trypanosomosis (HAT) in humans and 'nagana' or African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) in livestock in Sub-saharan Africa. Many consider HAT as one of the major neglected tropical diseases and AAT as the single greatest health constraint to increased livestock production. This review provides some background information on the taxonomy of tsetse flies, their unique way of reproduction (adenotrophic viviparity) making the adult stage the only one easily accessible for control, and how their ecological affinities, their distribution and population dynamics influence and dictate control efforts. The paper likewise reviews four control tactics (sequential aerosol technique, stationary attractive devices, live bait technique and the sterile insect technique) that are currently accepted as friendly to the environment, and describes their limitations and advantages and how they can best be put to practise in an IPM context. The paper discusses the different strategies for tsetse control i.e. localised versus area-wide and focusses thereafter on the principles of area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) and the phased-conditional approach with the tsetse project in Senegal as a recent example. We argue that sustainable tsetse-free zones can be created on Africa mainland provided certain managerial and technical prerequisites are in place. Copyright © 2012 International Atomic Energy Agency. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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              The origins of a new Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness outbreak in eastern Uganda.

              Sleeping sickness, caused by two trypanosome subspecies, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, is a parasitic disease transmitted by the tsetse fly in sub-Saharan Africa. We report on a recent outbreak of T b rhodesiense sleeping sickness outside the established south-east Ugandan focus, in Soroti District where the disease had previously been absent. Soroti District has been the subject of large-scale livestock restocking activities and, because domestic cattle are important reservoirs of T b rhodesiense, we investigated the role of cattle in the origins of the outbreak. We identified the origins of cattle entering the outbreak area in the 4 years preceding the outbreak. A matched case-control study was conducted to assess whether the distance of villages from the main market involved with restocking was a risk factor for sleeping sickness. We investigated the spatial clustering of sleeping sickness cases at the start of the outbreak. Over 50% (1510 of 2796) of cattle traded at the market were reported to have originated from endemic sleeping sickness areas. The case-control study revealed that distance to the cattle market was a highly significant risk factor for sleeping sickness (p<0.001) and that there was a significant clustering of cases (27 of 28) close to the market at the start of the outbreak (p<0.001). As the outbreak progressed, the average distance of cases moved away from the cattle market (0.014 km per day, 95% CI 0.008-0.020 km per day, p<0.001). The results are consistent with the disease being introduced by cattle infected with T b rhodesiense imported to the market from the endemic sleeping sickness focus. The subsequent spread of the disease away from the market suggests that sleeping sickness is becoming established in this new focus. Public health measures directed at controlling the infection in the animal reservoir should be considered to prevent the spread of sleeping sickness.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS Negl Trop Dis
                PLoS Negl Trop Dis
                plos
                plosntds
                PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1935-2727
                1935-2735
                27 December 2016
                December 2016
                : 10
                : 12
                : e0005247
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Production and Population Health, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
                [2 ]Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
                Hunter College, CUNY, UNITED STATES
                Author notes

                The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                • Wrote the paper: AM HRH RS JG.

                • Conceived the systematic review and data extraction protocols: AM HRH RS JG.

                • Performed the review and the data extraction: AM.

                • Conducted the expert elicitation: AM.

                • Critically revised the manuscript: HRH RS JG.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0105-0926
                Article
                PNTD-D-16-01239
                10.1371/journal.pntd.0005247
                5222520
                28027299
                134193f3-44b8-4558-923a-f80e5656252d
                © 2016 Meyer et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 5 July 2016
                : 12 December 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 5, Pages: 29
                Funding
                Funded by: Global Alliance for Livestock Veterinary Medicines (GALVmed)
                Award ID: ARIES 202040-101
                Award Recipient :
                This work was funded by the Global Alliance for Livestock Veterinary Medicines (GALVmed) through its Animal African Trypanosomosis Program ( www.galvmed.org) (Aries code 202040–101). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. This article represents the findings and opinions of the authors. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent, and should not be attributed to, GALVmed nor its funders – the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the UK Government.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Infectious Diseases
                Infectious Disease Control
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Amniotes
                Mammals
                Bovines
                Cattle
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Agriculture
                Livestock
                Cattle
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Amniotes
                Mammals
                Ruminants
                Cattle
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Veterinary Science
                Veterinary Diseases
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Agriculture
                Livestock
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Parasitic Diseases
                Protozoan Infections
                Trypanosomiasis
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Infectious Diseases
                Zoonoses
                Trypanosomiasis
                People and Places
                Geographical Locations
                Africa
                Cameroon
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Veterinary Science
                Veterinary Medicine
                Livestock Care
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Tropical Diseases
                Neglected Tropical Diseases
                African Trypanosomiasis
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Parasitic Diseases
                Protozoan Infections
                Trypanosomiasis
                African Trypanosomiasis
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Infectious Diseases
                Zoonoses
                Trypanosomiasis
                African Trypanosomiasis
                Custom metadata
                vor-update-to-uncorrected-proof
                2017-01-09
                All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

                Infectious disease & Microbiology
                Infectious disease & Microbiology

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