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      Cardiovascular Risks Associated with Gender and Aging

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          Abstract

          The aging and elderly population are particularly susceptible to cardiovascular disease. Age is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) in adults, but these risks are compounded by additional factors, including frailty, obesity, and diabetes. These factors are known to complicate and enhance cardiac risk factors that are associated with the onset of advanced age. Sex is another potential risk factor in aging adults, given that older females are reported to be at a greater risk for CVD than age-matched men. However, in both men and women, the risks associated with CVD increase with age, and these correspond to an overall decline in sex hormones, primarily of estrogen and testosterone. Despite this, hormone replacement therapies are largely shown to not improve outcomes in older patients and may also increase the risks of cardiac events in older adults. This review discusses current findings regarding the impacts of age and gender on heart disease.

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          Frailty in Older Adults: Evidence for a Phenotype

          L P Fried, C Tangen, J Walston … (2001)
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            Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2019 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association

            Emelia Benjamin, Paul Muntner, Alvaro Alonso … (2019)
            Circulation, 139(10)
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              Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic diseases.

              Frank W Booth, Christian K Roberts, Matthew J Laye (2012)
              Chronic diseases are major killers in the modern era. Physical inactivity is a primary cause of most chronic diseases. The initial third of the article considers: activity and prevention definitions; historical evidence showing physical inactivity is detrimental to health and normal organ functional capacities; cause versus treatment; physical activity and inactivity mechanisms differ; gene-environment interaction (including aerobic training adaptations, personalized medicine, and co-twin physical activity); and specificity of adaptations to type of training. Next, physical activity/exercise is examined as primary prevention against 35 chronic conditions [accelerated biological aging/premature death, low cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2max), sarcopenia, metabolic syndrome, obesity, insulin resistance, prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, coronary heart disease, peripheral artery disease, hypertension, stroke, congestive heart failure, endothelial dysfunction, arterial dyslipidemia, hemostasis, deep vein thrombosis, cognitive dysfunction, depression and anxiety, osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, balance, bone fracture/falls, rheumatoid arthritis, colon cancer, breast cancer, endometrial cancer, gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia, polycystic ovary syndrome, erectile dysfunction, pain, diverticulitis, constipation, and gallbladder diseases]. The article ends with consideration of deterioration of risk factors in longer-term sedentary groups; clinical consequences of inactive childhood/adolescence; and public policy. In summary, the body rapidly maladapts to insufficient physical activity, and if continued, results in substantial decreases in both total and quality years of life. Taken together, conclusive evidence exists that physical inactivity is one important cause of most chronic diseases. In addition, physical activity primarily prevents, or delays, chronic diseases, implying that chronic disease need not be an inevitable outcome during life. © 2012 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 2:1143-1211, 2012.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): J Cardiovasc Dev Dis
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): J Cardiovasc Dev Dis
                Journal ID (publisher-id): jcdd
                Title: Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2308-3425
                Publication date (Electronic): 27 April 2019
                Publication date Collection: June 2019
                Volume: 6
                Issue: 2
                Electronic Location Identifier: 19
                Affiliations
                Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; jlrodgers2@ 123456health.usf.edu (J.L.R.); jcjones@ 123456mail.usf.edu (J.J.); samuelignati@ 123456mail.usf.edu (S.I.B.); sahit@ 123456mail.usf.edu (S.V.); lerodgers47@ 123456knights.ucf.edu (L.E.R.); kinjal1@ 123456health.usf.edu (K.S.); krishnakaria@ 123456health.usf.edu (K.K.)
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: spangulu@ 123456health.usf.edu ; Tel.: +1-813-974-6571; Fax: +1-813-905-9890
                Article
                Publisher ID: jcdd-06-00019
                DOI: 10.3390/jcdd6020019
                PMC ID: 6616540
                PubMed ID: 31035613
                SO-VID: 13ffaa7e-bb4e-414d-b6a3-85acbd9d2cf5
                Copyright © © 2019 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 28 March 2019
                Date accepted : 23 April 2019
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: aging,gender,cardiovascular disease,estrogen,testosterone
                Data availability:
                Keywords: aging, gender, cardiovascular disease, estrogen, testosterone

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