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      Effects of multitasking-training on gray matter structure and resting state neural mechanisms

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          Abstract

          Multitasking (MT) constitutes engaging in two or more cognitive activities at the same time. MT-training improves performance on untrained MT tasks and alters the functional activity of the brain during MT. However, the effects of MT-training on neural mechanisms beyond MT-related functions are not known. We investigated the effects of 4 weeks of MT-training on regional gray matter volume (rGMV) and functional connectivity during rest (resting-FC) in young human adults. MT-training was associated with increased rGMV in three prefrontal cortical regions (left lateral rostral prefrontal cortex (PFC), dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC), and left inferior frontal junction), the left posterior parietal cortex, and the left temporal and lateral occipital areas as well as decreased resting-FC between the right DLPFC and an anatomical cluster around the ventral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Our findings suggest that participation in MT-training is as a whole associated with task-irrelevant plasticity (i.e., neural changes are not limited to certain specific task conditions) in regions and the network that are assumed to play roles in MT as well as diverse higher-order cognitive functions. We could not dissociate the effects of each task component and the diverse cognitive processes involved in MT because of the nature of the study, and these remain to be investigated. Hum Brain Mapp 35:3646–3660, 2014. © 2013 The Authors. Human Brain Mapping Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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          Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach.

          A study was conducted in which 133 participants performed 11 memory tasks (some thought to reflect working memory and some thought to reflect short-term memory), 2 tests of general fluid intelligence, and the Verbal and Quantitative Scholastic Aptitude Tests. Structural equation modeling suggested that short-term and working memories reflect separate but highly related constructs and that many of the tasks used in the literature as working memory tasks reflect a common construct. Working memory shows a strong connection to fluid intelligence, but short-term memory does not. A theory of working memory capacity and general fluid intelligence is proposed: The authors argue that working memory capacity and fluid intelligence reflect the ability to keep a representation active, particularly in the face of interference and distraction. The authors also discuss the relationship of this capability to controlled attention, and the functions of the prefrontal cortex.
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            Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD--a randomized, controlled trial.

            Deficits in executive functioning, including working memory (WM) deficits, have been suggested to be important in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). During 2002 to 2003, the authors conducted a multicenter, randomized, controlled, double-blind trial to investigate the effect of improving WM by computerized, systematic practice of WM tasks. Included in the trial were 53 children with ADHD (9 girls; 15 of 53 inattentive subtype), aged 7 to 12 years, without stimulant medication. The compliance criterion (>20 days of training) was met by 44 subjects, 42 of whom were also evaluated at follow-up 3 months later. Participants were randomly assigned to use either the treatment computer program for training WM or a comparison program. The main outcome measure was the span-board task, a visuospatial WM task that was not part of the training program. For the span-board task, there was a significant treatment effect both post-intervention and at follow-up. In addition, there were significant effects for secondary outcome tasks measuring verbal WM, response inhibition, and complex reasoning. Parent ratings showed significant reduction in symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity, both post-intervention and at follow-up. This study shows that WM can be improved by training in children with ADHD. This training also improved response inhibition and reasoning and resulted in a reduction of the parent-rated inattentive symptoms of ADHD.
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              Spontaneous low-frequency BOLD signal fluctuations: an fMRI investigation of the resting-state default mode of brain function hypothesis.

              Recent neuroimaging studies have lead to the proposal that rest is characterized by an organized, baseline level of activity, a default mode of brain function that is suspended during specific goal-oriented mental activity. Previous studies have shown that the primary function subserved by the default mode is that of an introspectively oriented, self-referential mode of mental activity. The default mode of brain function hypothesis is readdressed from the perspective of the presence of low-frequency blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) signal changes (0.012-0.1 Hz) in the resting brain. The results show that the brain during rest is not tonically active in a single mode of brain function. Rather, the findings presented here suggest that the brain recurrently toggles between an introspectively oriented mode (default mode) and a state-of-mind that tentatively might be interpreted as an extrospectively oriented mode that involves a readiness and alertness to changes in the external and internal environment.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Hum Brain Mapp
                Hum Brain Mapp
                hbm
                Human Brain Mapping
                BlackWell Publishing Ltd (Oxford, UK )
                1065-9471
                1097-0193
                August 2014
                17 December 2013
                : 35
                : 8
                : 3646-3660
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Smart Ageing International Research Center, Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, Tohoku University Sendai, Japan
                [2 ]Division of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, Tohoku University Sendai, Japan
                [3 ]Department of Functional Brain Imaging, Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, Tohoku University Sendai, Japan
                Author notes
                *Correspondence to: Hikaru Takeuchi, Smart Ageing International Research Center, Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryo-cho, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan. E-mail: takehi@ 123456idac.tohoku.ac.jp

                Contract grant sponsor: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT); Contract grant sponsor: KAKENHI; Contract grant number: 23700306; Contract grant sponsor: JST/RISTEX; JST/CREST

                Article
                10.1002/hbm.22427
                4216411
                24343872
                14173327-b952-4db5-8489-d165fc062c13
                © 2013 The Authors. Human Brain Mapping Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

                This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.

                History
                : 18 July 2013
                : 06 October 2013
                : 01 November 2013
                Categories
                Research Articles

                Neurology
                dual task,multitasking,cognitive training,resting state,functional connectivity,gray matter,structure,plasticity

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