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      Prostaglandin E 2 and the Suppression of Phagocyte Innate Immune Responses in Different Organs

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          Abstract

          The local and systemic production of prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2) and its actions in phagocytes lead to immunosuppressive conditions. PGE 2 is produced at high levels during inflammation, and its suppressive effects are caused by the ligation of the E prostanoid receptors EP 2 and EP 4, which results in the production of cyclic AMP. However, PGE 2 also exhibits immunostimulatory properties due to binding to EP 3, which results in decreased cAMP levels. The various guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) that are coupled to the different EP receptors account for the pleiotropic roles of PGE 2 in different disease states. Here, we discuss the production of PGE 2 and the actions of this prostanoid in phagocytes from different tissues, the relative contribution of PGE 2 to the modulation of innate immune responses, and the novel therapeutic opportunities that can be used to control inflammatory responses.

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          Most cited references147

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          Resolution of inflammation: state of the art, definitions and terms.

          A recent focus meeting on Controlling Acute Inflammation was held in London, April 27-28, 2006, organized by D.W. Gilroy and S.D. Brain for the British Pharmacology Society. We concluded at the meeting that a consensus report was needed that addresses the rapid progress in this emerging field and details how the specific study of resolution of acute inflammation provides leads for novel anti-inflammatory therapeutics, as well as defines the terms and key components of interest in the resolution process within tissues as appreciated today. The inflammatory response protects the body against infection and injury but can itself become dysregulated with deleterious consequences to the host. It is now evident that endogenous biochemical pathways activated during defense reactions can counter-regulate inflammation and promote resolution. Hence, resolution is an active rather than a passive process, as once believed, which now promises novel approaches for the treatment of inflammation-associated diseases based on endogenous agonists of resolution.
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            Modulation of osteoclast differentiation and function by the new members of the tumor necrosis factor receptor and ligand families.

            Osteoblasts/stromal cells are essentially involved in osteoclast differentiation and function through cell-to-cell contact (Fig. 8). Although many attempts have been made to elucidate the mechanism of the so-called "microenvironment provided by osteoblasts/stromal cells," (5-8) it has remained an open question until OPG and its binding molecule were cloned. The serial discovery of the new members of the TNF receptor-ligand family members has confirmed the idea that osteoclast differentiation and function are regulated by osteoblasts/stromal cells. RANKL, which has also been called ODF, TRANCE, or OPGL, is a member of the TNF ligand family. Expression of RANKL mRNA in osteoblasts/stromal cells is up-regulated by osteotropic factors such as 1 alpha, 25(OH)2D3, PTH, and IL-11. Osteoclast precursors express RANK, a TNF receptor family member, recognize RANKL through cell-to-cell interaction with osteoblasts/stromal cells, and differentiate into pOCs in the presence of M-CSF. RANKL is also involved in the survival and fusion of pOCs and activation of mature osteoclasts. OPG, which has also been called OCIF or TR1, is a soluble receptor for RANKL and acts as a decoy receptor in the RANK-RANKL signaling system (Fig. 8). In conclusion, osteoblasts/stromal cells are involved in all of the processes of osteoclast development, such as differentiation, survival, fusion, and activation of osteoclasts (Fig. 8). Osteoblasts/stromal cells can now be replaced with RANKL and M-CSF in dealing with the whole life of osteoclasts. RANKL, RANK, and OPG are three key molecules that regulate osteoclast recruitment and function. Further studies on these key molecules will elucidate the molecular mechanism of the regulation of osteoclastic bone resorption. This line of studies will establish new ways to treat several metabolic bone diseases caused by abnormal osteoclast recruitment and functions such as osteopetrosis, osteoporosis, metastatic bone disease, Paget's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and periodontal bone disease.
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              COX-3, a cyclooxygenase-1 variant inhibited by acetaminophen and other analgesic/antipyretic drugs: cloning, structure, and expression.

              Two cyclooxygenase isozymes, COX-1 and -2, are known to catalyze the rate-limiting step of prostaglandin synthesis and are the targets of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Here we describe a third distinct COX isozyme, COX-3, as well as two smaller COX-1-derived proteins (partial COX-1 or PCOX-1 proteins). COX-3 and one of the PCOX-1 proteins (PCOX-1a) are made from the COX-1 gene but retain intron 1 in their mRNAs. PCOX-1 proteins additionally contain an in-frame deletion of exons 5-8 of the COX-1 mRNA. COX-3 and PCOX mRNAs are expressed in canine cerebral cortex and in lesser amounts in other tissues analyzed. In human, COX-3 mRNA is expressed as an approximately 5.2-kb transcript and is most abundant in cerebral cortex and heart. Intron 1 is conserved in length and in sequence in mammalian COX-1 genes. This intron contains an ORF that introduces an insertion of 30-34 aa, depending on the mammalian species, into the hydrophobic signal peptide that directs COX-1 into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear envelope. COX-3 and PCOX-1a are expressed efficiently in insect cells as membrane-bound proteins. The signal peptide is not cleaved from either protein and both proteins are glycosylated. COX-3, but not PCOX-1a, possesses glycosylation-dependent cyclooxygenase activity. Comparison of canine COX-3 activity with murine COX-1 and -2 demonstrates that this enzyme is selectively inhibited by analgesic/antipyretic drugs such as acetaminophen, phenacetin, antipyrine, and dipyrone, and is potently inhibited by some nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Thus, inhibition of COX-3 could represent a primary central mechanism by which these drugs decrease pain and possibly fever.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Mediators Inflamm
                Mediators Inflamm
                MI
                Mediators of Inflammation
                Hindawi Publishing Corporation
                0962-9351
                1466-1861
                2012
                13 September 2012
                : 2012
                : 327568
                Affiliations
                1Department of Biological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, 14801-902 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
                2Department of Biological Sciences, Bauru School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo (USP), Av Octávio Pinheiro Brisolla 9-75, Bauru, 17012-901 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
                3Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 950 West Walnut Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
                Author notes
                *C. Henrique Serezani: chserez@ 123456usp.br

                Academic Editor: Ruxana Sadikot

                Article
                10.1155/2012/327568
                3449139
                23024463
                14b7886e-c63c-4bed-aca6-5124a275cf55
                Copyright © 2012 Alexandra Medeiros et al.

                This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 15 February 2012
                : 19 April 2012
                : 3 May 2012
                Categories
                Review Article

                Immunology
                Immunology

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