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      Is Open Access

      Weather impacts expressed sentiment

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          Abstract

          We conduct the largest ever investigation into the relationship between meteorological conditions and the sentiment of human expressions. To do this, we employ over three and a half billion social media posts from tens of millions of individuals from both Facebook and Twitter between 2009 and 2016. We find that cold temperatures, hot temperatures, precipitation, narrower daily temperature ranges, humidity, and cloud cover are all associated with worsened expressions of sentiment, even when excluding weather-related posts. We compare the magnitude of our estimates with the effect sizes associated with notable historical events occurring within our data.

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          Most cited references26

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          Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks.

          Emotional states can be transferred to others via emotional contagion, leading people to experience the same emotions without their awareness. Emotional contagion is well established in laboratory experiments, with people transferring positive and negative emotions to others. Data from a large real-world social network, collected over a 20-y period suggests that longer-lasting moods (e.g., depression, happiness) can be transferred through networks [Fowler JH, Christakis NA (2008) BMJ 337:a2338], although the results are controversial. In an experiment with people who use Facebook, we test whether emotional contagion occurs outside of in-person interaction between individuals by reducing the amount of emotional content in the News Feed. When positive expressions were reduced, people produced fewer positive posts and more negative posts; when negative expressions were reduced, the opposite pattern occurred. These results indicate that emotions expressed by others on Facebook influence our own emotions, constituting experimental evidence for massive-scale contagion via social networks. This work also suggests that, in contrast to prevailing assumptions, in-person interaction and nonverbal cues are not strictly necessary for emotional contagion, and that the observation of others' positive experiences constitutes a positive experience for people.
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            Robust Inference With Multiway Clustering

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              Diurnal and seasonal mood vary with work, sleep, and daylength across diverse cultures.

              We identified individual-level diurnal and seasonal mood rhythms in cultures across the globe, using data from millions of public Twitter messages. We found that individuals awaken in a good mood that deteriorates as the day progresses--which is consistent with the effects of sleep and circadian rhythm--and that seasonal change in baseline positive affect varies with change in daylength. People are happier on weekends, but the morning peak in positive affect is delayed by 2 hours, which suggests that people awaken later on weekends.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Project administrationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                25 April 2018
                2018
                : 13
                : 4
                : e0195750
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Vancouver School of Economics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
                [2 ] Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States of America
                [3 ] Data61, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Melbourne, Australia
                [4 ] Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, NY, United States of America
                [5 ] Department of Mathematics and GISC, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, Spain
                [6 ] Departments of Political Science and Medicine, UC San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States of America
                University of Warwick, UNITED KINGDOM
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1127-2231
                Article
                PONE-D-17-45223
                10.1371/journal.pone.0195750
                5918636
                29694424
                1908af5e-3628-420c-855e-bcbce38772c9
                © 2018 Baylis et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 29 December 2017
                : 28 March 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 1, Pages: 11
                Funding
                Funded by: Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (ES)
                Award ID: FIS2013-47532-C3-3-P
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (ES)
                Award ID: FIS2016-78904-C3-3-P
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000001, National Science Foundation;
                Award ID: DGE0707423
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000001, National Science Foundation;
                Award ID: TG-SES130013
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000001, National Science Foundation;
                Award ID: 0903551
                Award Recipient :
                This work was supported by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad: FIS2013-47532-C3-3-P, FIS2016-78904-C3-3-P ( http://www.mineco.gob.es/); and National Science Foundation DGE0707423, TG-SES130013, 0903551 ( https://www.nsf.gov/). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Communications
                Social Communication
                Social Media
                Twitter
                Computer and Information Sciences
                Network Analysis
                Social Networks
                Social Media
                Twitter
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Social Networks
                Social Media
                Twitter
                Earth Sciences
                Atmospheric Science
                Meteorology
                Weather
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Communications
                Social Communication
                Social Media
                Facebook
                Computer and Information Sciences
                Network Analysis
                Social Networks
                Social Media
                Facebook
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Social Networks
                Social Media
                Facebook
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Psychology
                Emotions
                Social Sciences
                Psychology
                Emotions
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Communications
                Social Communication
                Social Media
                Computer and Information Sciences
                Network Analysis
                Social Networks
                Social Media
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Social Networks
                Social Media
                Earth Sciences
                Atmospheric Science
                Meteorology
                Earth Sciences
                Atmospheric Science
                Meteorology
                Humidity
                Earth Sciences
                Atmospheric Science
                Meteorology
                Clouds
                Custom metadata
                We collected our Twitter data from the public domain in adherence with Twitter's Developer Agreement and we used aggregated Facebook data published previously. The data used in this study are restricted from public redistribution by both Facebook and Twitter. However, all intermediate estimates needed to evaluate the conclusions in the paper are present in the paper and/or the Supporting Information. The raw Twitter data may be procured through Twitter’s GNIP service, and the official data sharing policy at Facebook is that they will work with researchers who want to replicate published findings.

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