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      Microgeographic population structuring of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

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          Abstract

          Aedes aegypti is one of the species most favored by changes in the environment caused by urbanization. Its abundance increases rapidly in the face of such changes, increasing the risk of disease transmission. Previous studies have shown that mosquito species that have adapted to anthropogenic environmental changes benefit from urbanization and undergo population expansion. In light of this, we used microsatellite markers to explore how urbanization processes may be modulating Ae. aegypti populations collected from three areas with different levels of urbanization in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Specimens were collected at eleven sites in three areas with different degrees of urbanization in the city of São Paulo: conserved, intermediate and urbanized. Ten microsatellite loci were used to characterize the populations from these areas genetically. Our findings suggest that as urbanized areas grow and the human population density in these areas increases, Ae. aegypti populations undergo a major population expansion, which can probably be attributed to the species’ adaptability to anthropogenic environmental changes. Our findings reveal a robust association between, on the one hand, urbanization processes and densification of the human population and, on the other, Ae. aegypti population structure patterns and population expansion. This indicates that this species benefits from anthropogenic effects, which are intensified by migration of the human population from rural to urban areas, increasing the risk of epidemics and disease transmission to an ever-increasing number of people.

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          Past: Paleontological Statistics softwafre package for education and data analysis

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            Sm16, a major component of Schistosoma mansoni cercarial excretory/secretory products, prevents macrophage classical activation and delays antigen processing

            Background Schistosoma mansoni cercariae penetrate the skin by releasing excretory/secretory (E/S) products known as 0-3hRP, which are associated with immune modulation through Toll like receptor (TLR) signalling. Furthermore, these secretions contain Sm16, which when given to cells as a recombinant protein inhibits human monocyte derived cytokine responses to TLR4 and TLR3 ligands. Nonetheless, the extent and mechanism(s) of these inhibitory effects remain largely uncharacterized. Methods Murine bone marrow derived macrophages were exposed to different fractions of 0-3hRP, obtained via ultracentrifugation, or recombinant Sm16. These cells were exposed to the parasite molecules in combination with different TLR ligands, or Interferon gamma, and tested for the production of the cytokines IL-10 and IL-12p40, and their ability to process antigen. Results The immunomodulatory function of 0-3hRP is enriched predominantly in the pellet fraction, which contains a greater proportion of Sm16, also corroborating the ability of recombinant Sm16 to inhibit macrophage activation in response to TLR ligands. We further demonstrate that Sm16 blocks classical activation of macrophages to LPS or IFN-γ stimulation in vitro, and that inhibition of macrophage classical activation is independent of TLR2 recognition. Finally we show that Sm16 shares the altered intracellular processing observed for 0-3hRP, and is able to delay antigen processing by macrophages. Conclusions Collectively, our findings show that Sm16 is a major component of S. mansoni cercarial E/S products, and is partly responsible for its immune-regulatory properties. Moreover, we propose that the mechanism employed by Sm16 to exert its inhibitory function is likely to be linked with alteration of endosomal trafficking and is not dependent on particular TLR receptors. Finally, we suggest that accumulation of Sm16 in the skin after percutaneous infection with S. mansoni cercariae could contribute to limiting dermal inflammation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-014-0608-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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              Human impacts have shaped historical and recent evolution in Aedes aegypti, the dengue and yellow fever mosquito.

              Although anthropogenic impacts are often considered harmful to species, human modifications to the landscape can actually create novel niches to which other species can adapt. These "domestication" processes are especially important in the context of arthropod disease vectors, where ecological overlap of vector and human populations may lead to epidemics. Here, we present results of a global genetic study of one such species, the dengue and yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, whose evolutionary history and current distribution have been profoundly shaped by humans. We used DNA sequences of four nuclear genes and 1504 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers developed with restriction-site associated DNA (RAD) sequencing to test the hypothesis that Ae. aegypti originated in Africa, where a domestic form arose and spread throughout the tropical and subtropical world with human trade and movement. Results confirmed African ancestry of the species, and supported a single subspeciation event leading to the pantropical domestic form. In addition, genetic data strongly supported the hypothesis that human trade routes first moved domestic Ae. aegypti out of Africa into the New World, followed by a later invasion from the New World into Southeast Asia and the Pacific. These patterns of domestication and invasion are relevant to many species worldwide, as anthropogenic forces increasingly impact evolutionary processes. © 2013 The Author(s). Evolution © 2013 The Society for the Study of Evolution.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: Methodology
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                20 September 2017
                2017
                : 12
                : 9
                : e0185150
                Affiliations
                [001]Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saúde Pública, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
                University of Malaya, MALAYSIA
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6629-7666
                Article
                PONE-D-17-09607
                10.1371/journal.pone.0185150
                5607186
                28931078
                1a400550-9ec3-4c05-92dc-8f21b25dd4e4
                © 2017 Wilke et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 10 March 2017
                : 22 August 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 4, Pages: 11
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001807, Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo;
                Award ID: 2013/15313-4
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001807, Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo;
                Award ID: 2012/19117-2
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001807, Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo;
                Award ID: 2015/01172-5
                Award Recipient :
                This work was supported by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo: Grant 2013/15313-4 ( www.fapesp.br) MTM; Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo: Grant 2012/19117-2 ( www.fapesp.br) ABBW; Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo: Grant 2015/01172-5 ( www.fapesp.br) RWS. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Infectious Diseases
                Disease Vectors
                Insect Vectors
                Mosquitoes
                Aedes Aegypti
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Species Interactions
                Disease Vectors
                Insect Vectors
                Mosquitoes
                Aedes Aegypti
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Animals
                Invertebrates
                Arthropoda
                Insects
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                Evolutionary Biology
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                Genetics
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                Population Biology
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                Genetics
                Heredity
                Heterozygosity
                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Terrestrial Environments
                Urban Environments
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                Genetic Loci
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                Species Interactions
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                Mosquitoes
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
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                Microsatellite Loci
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                Molecular Biology
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