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      Diversity and Composition of the Leaf Mycobiome of Beech ( Fagus sylvatica) Are Affected by Local Habitat Conditions and Leaf Biochemistry

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          Abstract

          Comparative investigations of plant-associated fungal communities (mycobiomes) in distinct habitats and under distinct climate regimes have been rarely conducted in the past. Nowadays, high-throughput sequencing allows routine examination of mycobiome responses to environmental changes and results at an unprecedented level of detail. In the present study, we analysed Illumina-generated fungal ITS1 sequences from European beech ( Fagus sylvatica) originating from natural habitats at two different altitudes in the German Alps and from a managed tree nursery in northern Germany. In general, leaf-inhabiting mycobiome diversity and composition correlated significantly with the origin of the trees. Under natural condition the mycobiome was more diverse at lower than at higher elevation, whereas fungal diversity was lowest in the artificial habitat of the tree nursery. We further identified significant correlation of leaf chlorophylls and flavonoids with both habitat parameters and mycobiome biodiversity. The present results clearly point towards a pronounced importance of local stand conditions for the structure of beech leaf mycobiomes and for a close interrelation of phyllosphere fungi and leaf physiology.

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          Fungal endophytes: diversity and functional roles.

          All plants in natural ecosystems appear to be symbiotic with fungal endophytes. This highly diverse group of fungi can have profound impacts on plant communities through increasing fitness by conferring abiotic and biotic stress tolerance, increasing biomass and decreasing water consumption, or decreasing fitness by altering resource allocation. Despite more than 100 yr of research resulting in thousands of journal articles, the ecological significance of these fungi remains poorly characterized. Historically, two endophytic groups (clavicipitaceous (C) and nonclavicipitaceous (NC)) have been discriminated based on phylogeny and life history traits. Here, we show that NC-endophytes represent three distinct functional groups based on host colonization and transmission, in planta biodiversity and fitness benefits conferred to hosts. Using this framework, we contrast the life histories, interactions with hosts and potential roles in plant ecophysiology of C- and NC-endophytes, and highlight several key questions for future work in endophyte biology.
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            Hidden fungi, emergent properties: endophytes and microbiomes.

            Endophytes are microorganisms that live within plant tissues without causing symptoms of disease. They are important components of plant microbiomes. Endophytes interact with, and overlap in function with, other core microbial groups that colonize plant tissues, e.g., mycorrhizal fungi, pathogens, epiphytes, and saprotrophs. Some fungal endophytes affect plant growth and plant responses to pathogens, herbivores, and environmental change; others produce useful or interesting secondary metabolites. Here, we focus on new techniques and approaches that can provide an integrative understanding of the role of fungal endophytes in the plant microbiome. Clavicipitaceous endophytes of grasses are not considered because they have unique properties distinct from other endophytes. Hidden from view and often overlooked, endophytes are emerging as their diversity, importance for plant growth and survival, and interactions with other organisms are revealed. Copyright © 2011 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved.
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              Carbon flux and growth in mature deciduous forest trees exposed to elevated CO2.

              Whether rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations will cause forests to grow faster and store more carbon is an open question. Using free air CO2 release in combination with a canopy crane, we found an immediate and sustained enhancement of carbon flux through 35-meter-tall temperate forest trees when exposed to elevated CO2. However, there was no overall stimulation in stem growth and leaf litter production after 4 years. Photosynthetic capacity was not reduced, leaf chemistry changes were minor, and tree species differed in their responses. Although growing vigorously, these trees did not accrete more biomass carbon in stems in response to elevated CO2, thus challenging projections of growth responses derived from tests with smaller trees.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                14 April 2016
                2016
                : 11
                : 4
                : e0152878
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Ernst-Moritz-Arndt Universität Greifswald, Institut für Botanik und Landschaftsökologie, Greifswald, Germany
                [2 ]Biozentrum der LMU München, Bereich Genetik, Martinsried, Germany
                [3 ]Ruhr-Universität Bochum, AG Geobotanik, Bochum, Germany
                Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, GERMANY
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Conceived and designed the experiments: DP AB MU. Performed the experiments: ABS MU. Analyzed the data: ABS DP AB MU. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: ABS DP AB MU. Wrote the paper: ABS DP AB MU.

                Article
                PONE-D-15-28600
                10.1371/journal.pone.0152878
                4831807
                27078859
                1baeee33-840a-47cc-be1e-e57a880e25c7
                © 2016 Unterseher et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 15 July 2015
                : 21 March 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 5, Tables: 2, Pages: 16
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001659, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft;
                Award ID: UN262/9-1
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001659, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft;
                Award ID: PE1673/4-1
                Award Recipient :
                This study was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) as part of the full research project grant “Patterns and processes in endophyte ecology - studies in optimal and extreme habitats of European Beech to reveal the underlying principles” to MU (UN262/9-1) and DP (PE1673/4-1). Project description is available at http://gepris.dfg.de/gepris/projekt/245215303?language=en. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Plant Science
                Plant Anatomy
                Leaves
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Plants
                Trees
                Earth Sciences
                Geomorphology
                Topography
                Landforms
                Mountains
                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Terrestrial Environments
                Mountains
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Mycology
                Fungal Biochemistry
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Ecology
                Biodiversity
                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Ecology
                Biodiversity
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Plant Biochemistry
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Plant Science
                Plant Biochemistry
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Plants
                Trees
                Beeches
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Cell Biology
                Cellular Structures and Organelles
                Chloroplasts
                Chlorophyll
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Cell Biology
                Plant Cell Biology
                Chloroplasts
                Chlorophyll
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Plant Science
                Plant Cell Biology
                Chloroplasts
                Chlorophyll
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Cell Biology
                Cellular Types
                Plant Cells
                Chloroplasts
                Chlorophyll
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Cell Biology
                Plant Cell Biology
                Plant Cells
                Chloroplasts
                Chlorophyll
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Plant Science
                Plant Cell Biology
                Plant Cells
                Chloroplasts
                Chlorophyll
                Physical Sciences
                Materials Science
                Materials by Attribute
                Pigments
                Organic Pigments
                Chlorophyll
                Custom metadata
                All relevant original Illumnia FASTQ files are available through the NCBI Sequence Read Archive under the accession number SRX1211311.

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