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      Can Bats Serve as Reservoirs for Arboviruses?

      review-article
      , *
      Viruses
      MDPI
      arboviruses, bats, reservoir, wildlife, zoonoses

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          Abstract

          Bats are known to harbor and transmit many emerging and re-emerging viruses, many of which are extremely pathogenic in humans but do not cause overt pathology in their bat reservoir hosts: henipaviruses (Nipah and Hendra), filoviruses (Ebola and Marburg), and coronaviruses (SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV). Direct transmission cycles are often implicated in these outbreaks, with virus shed in bat feces, urine, and saliva. An additional mode of virus transmission between bats and humans requiring further exploration is the spread of disease via arthropod vectors. Despite the shared ecological niches that bats fill with many hematophagous arthropods (e.g., mosquitoes, ticks, biting midges, etc.) known to play a role in the transmission of medically important arboviruses, knowledge surrounding the potential for bats to act as reservoirs for arboviruses is limited. To this end, a comprehensive literature review was undertaken examining the current understanding and potential for bats to act as reservoirs for viruses transmitted by blood-feeding arthropods. Serosurveillance and viral isolation from either free-ranging or captive bats are described in relation to four arboviral groups ( Bunyavirales, Flaviviridae, Reoviridae, Togaviridae). Further, ecological associations between bats and hematophagous viral vectors are characterized (e.g., bat bloodmeals in mosquitoes, ingestion of mosquitoes by bats, etc). Lastly, knowledge gaps related to hematophagous ectoparasites (bat bugs and bed bugs ( Cimicidae) and bat flies ( Nycteribiidae and Streblidae)), in addition to future directions for characterization of bat-vector-virus relationships are described.

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          Experimental Infection of North American Birds with the New York 1999 Strain of West Nile Virus

          To evaluate transmission dynamics, we exposed 25 bird species to West Nile virus (WNV) by infectious mosquito bite. We monitored viremia titers, clinical outcome, WNV shedding (cloacal and oral), seroconversion, virus persistence in organs, and susceptibility to oral and contact transmission. Passeriform and charadriiform birds were more reservoir competent (a derivation of viremia data) than other species tested. The five most competent species were passerines: Blue Jay (Cyanocitta cristata), Common Grackle (Quiscalus quiscula), House Finch (Carpodacus mexicanus), American Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos), and House Sparrow (Passer domesticus). Death occurred in eight species. Cloacal shedding of WNV was observed in 17 of 24 species, and oral shedding in 12 of 14 species. We observed contact transmission among four species and oral in five species. Persistent WNV infections were found in tissues of 16 surviving birds. Our observations shed light on transmission ecology of WNV and will benefit surveillance and control programs.
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            Identifying Reservoirs of Infection: A Conceptual and Practical Challenge

            (2002)
            Many infectious agents, especially those that cause emerging diseases, infect more than one host species. Managing reservoirs of multihost pathogens often plays a crucial role in effective disease control. However, reservoirs remain variously and loosely defined. We propose that reservoirs can only be understood with reference to defined target populations. Therefore, we define a reservoir as one or more epidemiologically connected populations or environments in which the pathogen can be permanently maintained and from which infection is transmitted to the defined target population. Existence of a reservoir is confirmed when infection within the target population cannot be sustained after all transmission between target and nontarget populations has been eliminated. When disease can be controlled solely by interventions within target populations, little knowledge of potentially complex reservoir infection dynamics is necessary for effective control. We discuss the practical value of different approaches that may be used to identify reservoirs in the field.
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              Antigenic Relationships between Flaviviruses as Determined by Cross-neutralization Tests with Polyclonal Antisera

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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Viruses
                Viruses
                viruses
                Viruses
                MDPI
                1999-4915
                03 March 2019
                March 2019
                : 11
                : 3
                : 215
                Affiliations
                Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; anna.fagre@ 123456colostate.edu
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: rebekah.kading@ 123456colostate.edu ; Tel.: +1-970-491-7833
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0969-5078
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4996-915X
                Article
                viruses-11-00215
                10.3390/v11030215
                6466281
                30832426
                1d47504e-be7a-465b-8b7b-26290f04ee51
                © 2019 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 01 February 2019
                : 01 March 2019
                Categories
                Review

                Microbiology & Virology
                arboviruses,bats,reservoir,wildlife,zoonoses
                Microbiology & Virology
                arboviruses, bats, reservoir, wildlife, zoonoses

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