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      Renal Disease in Cardiovascular Disorders: An Underrecognized Problem

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          Abstract

          Chronic renal disease is generally appreciated as a major and rapidly growing health problem. In the United States alone, as many as 19.5 million people may have markers of early renal disease, and more than 660,000 people are expected to require renal replacement therapy by the year 2010. By contrast, the presence and pathological role of renal disease in patients with cardiovascular disease are somewhat underrecognized. Evidence now shows that even minor impairments in renal function, as indicated by measures including glomerular filtration rate and microalbuminuria, are common in cardiovascular disease states and predictive of cardiovascular events. Indeed, microalbuminuria may be a marker of systemic vascular disease rather than kidney dysfunction alone. In patients with hypertension, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, acute coronary syndromes, and stroke, markers of renal disease have proved to be at least as predictive of morbidity and mortality as conventional risk factors. Yet, chart reviews in a variety of clinical settings reflect poor recognition and management of renal disease in at-risk patients. Models for renal protection are based on the control of risk factors, particularly blood pressure, that are associated with renal and cardiovascular outcomes. Screening protocols for markers of renal disease should recognize the potential inaccuracy of serum creatinine concentrations and the preferability of glomerular filtration rate estimates that take age and gender into account. Pilot programs for screening high-risk populations have shown efficacy in detecting renal disease.

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          Most cited references51

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          Chronic kidney disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: a pooled analysis of community-based studies.

          Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major public health problem. Conflicting evidence exists among community-based studies as to whether CKD is an independent risk factor for adverse cardiovascular outcomes. After subjects with a baseline history of cardiovascular disease were excluded, data from four publicly available, community-based longitudinal studies were pooled: Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study, Cardiovascular Health Study, Framingham Heart Study, and Framingham Offspring Study. Serum creatinine levels were indirectly calibrated across studies. CKD was defined by a GFR between 15 and 60 ml/min per 1.73 m(2). A composite of myocardial infarction, fatal coronary heart disease, stroke, and death was the primary study outcome. Cox proportional hazards models were used to adjust for study, demographic variables, educational status, and other cardiovascular risk factors. The total population included 22,634 subjects; 18.4% of the population was black, and 7.4% had CKD. There were 3262 events. In adjusted analyses, CKD was an independent risk factor for the composite study outcome (hazard ratio [HR], 1.19; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.07-1.32), and there was a significant interaction between kidney function and race. Black individuals with CKD had an adjusted HR of 1.76 (95% CI, 1.35-2.31), whereas whites had an adjusted HR of 1.13 (95% CI, 1.02-1.26). CKD is a risk factor for the composite outcome of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease in the general population and a more pronounced risk factor in blacks than in whites. It is hypothesized that this effect may be due to more frequent or more severe subclinical vascular disease secondary to hypertension or diabetes in black individuals.
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            Microalbuminuria predicts clinical proteinuria and early mortality in maturity-onset diabetes.

            We studied whether microalbuminuria (30 to 140 micrograms of albumin per milliliter) would predict the later development of increased proteinuria and early mortality in Type II diabetics. During 1973, morning urine specimens of diabetic clinic patients 50 to 75 years of age whose disease had been diagnosed the age of 45 were examined for albumin level by radioimmunoassay. Seventy-six patients with albumin concentrations of 30 to 140 micrograms per milliliter were identified for long-term follow-up. They were compared with normal controls, diabetic patients with lower albumin concentrations (75 patients with concentrations less than 15 micrograms per milliliter and 53 with concentrations of 16 to 29 micrograms per milliliter), and 28 diabetic patients with higher concentrations (greater than 140). Age, duration of diabetes, treatment method, fasting blood glucose level, blood pressure, height, and weight were determined for the four diabetic groups. After nine years the group with albumin concentrations of 30 to 140 micrograms per milliliter was more likely to have clinically detectable proteinuria (greater than 400 micrograms per milliliter) than were the groups with lower concentrations. Mortality was 148 per cent higher in this group than in normal controls--comparable to the increase (116 per cent) in the group with heavy proteinuria (albumin levels greater than 140 micrograms per milliliter). In addition, mortality was increased 76 per cent in the group with albumin levels of 16 to 29 micrograms per milliliter and 37 per cent in the group with levels below 15. We conclude that microalbuminuria in patients with Type II diabetes is predictive of clinical proteinuria and increased mortality.
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              Plasma lipids and risk of developing renal dysfunction: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study.

              Animal and in vitro data suggest that dyslipidemia plays an important role in the initiation and progression of chronic renal disease, but few prospective studies have been conducted in humans. We studied the relationship of plasma lipids to a rise in serum creatinine of 0.4 mg/dL or greater in 12,728 Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) participants with baseline serum creatinine that was less than 2.0 mg/dL in men and less than 1.8 mg/dL in women. During a mean follow-up of 2.9 years, 191 persons had a rise in creatinine of 0.4 mg/dL or greater, yielding an incidence rate of 5.1 per 1000 person years. Individuals with higher triglycerides and lower high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and HDL-2 cholesterol at baseline were at increased risk for a rise in creatinine after adjustment for race, gender, baseline age, diabetes, serum creatinine, systolic blood pressure, and antihypertensive medication use (all P trends
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                AJN
                Am J Nephrol
                10.1159/issn.0250-8095
                American Journal of Nephrology
                S. Karger AG
                0250-8095
                1421-9670
                2005
                April 2005
                18 May 2005
                : 25
                : 2
                : 95-105
                Affiliations
                Departments of aNephrology and bEndocrinology, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
                Article
                84660 Am J Nephrol 2005;25:95–105
                10.1159/000084660
                15785015
                1e413a88-70e1-468d-945c-36b5828894f5
                © 2005 S. Karger AG, Basel

                Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug. Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.

                History
                : 03 November 2004
                : 06 January 2005
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 3, References: 70, Pages: 11
                Categories
                In-Depth Topic Review

                Cardiovascular Medicine,Nephrology
                Chronic kidney disease,Cardiovascular mortality,Renal disease,Cholesterol,Diabetic nephropathy

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