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      Ten facts about land systems for sustainability

      research-article
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      Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
      National Academy of Sciences
      land use, sustainability, social-ecological systems, governance

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          Abstract

          Land use is central to addressing sustainability issues, including biodiversity conservation, climate change, food security, poverty alleviation, and sustainable energy. In this paper, we synthesize knowledge accumulated in land system science, the integrated study of terrestrial social-ecological systems, into 10 hard truths that have strong, general, empirical support. These facts help to explain the challenges of achieving sustainability in land use and thus also point toward solutions. The 10 facts are as follows: 1) Meanings and values of land are socially constructed and contested; 2) land systems exhibit complex behaviors with abrupt, hard-to-predict changes; 3) irreversible changes and path dependence are common features of land systems; 4) some land uses have a small footprint but very large impacts; 5) drivers and impacts of land-use change are globally interconnected and spill over to distant locations; 6) humanity lives on a used planet where all land provides benefits to societies; 7) land-use change usually entails trade-offs between different benefits—"win–wins" are thus rare; 8) land tenure and land-use claims are often unclear, overlapping, and contested; 9) the benefits and burdens from land are unequally distributed; and 10) land users have multiple, sometimes conflicting, ideas of what social and environmental justice entails. The facts have implications for governance, but do not provide fixed answers. Instead they constitute a set of core principles which can guide scientists, policy makers, and practitioners toward meeting sustainability challenges in land use.

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          Most cited references214

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          Global consequences of land use.

          Land use has generally been considered a local environmental issue, but it is becoming a force of global importance. Worldwide changes to forests, farmlands, waterways, and air are being driven by the need to provide food, fiber, water, and shelter to more than six billion people. Global croplands, pastures, plantations, and urban areas have expanded in recent decades, accompanied by large increases in energy, water, and fertilizer consumption, along with considerable losses of biodiversity. Such changes in land use have enabled humans to appropriate an increasing share of the planet's resources, but they also potentially undermine the capacity of ecosystems to sustain food production, maintain freshwater and forest resources, regulate climate and air quality, and ameliorate infectious diseases. We face the challenge of managing trade-offs between immediate human needs and maintaining the capacity of the biosphere to provide goods and services in the long term.
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            Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity.

            A central challenge for sustainability is how to preserve forest ecosystems and the services that they provide us while enhancing food production. This challenge for developing countries confronts the force of economic globalization, which seeks cropland that is shrinking in availability and triggers deforestation. Four mechanisms-the displacement, rebound, cascade, and remittance effects-that are amplified by economic globalization accelerate land conversion. A few developing countries have managed a land use transition over the recent decades that simultaneously increased their forest cover and agricultural production. These countries have relied on various mixes of agricultural intensification, land use zoning, forest protection, increased reliance on imported food and wood products, the creation of off-farm jobs, foreign capital investments, and remittances. Sound policies and innovations can therefore reconcile forest preservation with food production. Globalization can be harnessed to increase land use efficiency rather than leading to uncontrolled land use expansion. To do so, land systems should be understood and modeled as open systems with large flows of goods, people, and capital that connect local land use with global-scale factors.
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              The ecological impacts of nighttime light pollution: a mechanistic appraisal.

              The ecological impacts of nighttime light pollution have been a longstanding source of concern, accentuated by realized and projected growth in electrical lighting. As human communities and lighting technologies develop, artificial light increasingly modifies natural light regimes by encroaching on dark refuges in space, in time, and across wavelengths. A wide variety of ecological implications of artificial light have been identified. However, the primary research to date is largely focused on the disruptive influence of nighttime light on higher vertebrates, and while comprehensive reviews have been compiled along taxonomic lines and within specific research domains, the subject is in need of synthesis within a common mechanistic framework. Here we propose such a framework that focuses on the cross-factoring of the ways in which artificial lighting alters natural light regimes (spatially, temporally, and spectrally), and the ways in which light influences biological systems, particularly the distinction between light as a resource and light as an information source. We review the evidence for each of the combinations of this cross-factoring. As artificial lighting alters natural patterns of light in space, time and across wavelengths, natural patterns of resource use and information flows may be disrupted, with downstream effects to the structure and function of ecosystems. This review highlights: (i) the potential influence of nighttime lighting at all levels of biological organisation (from cell to ecosystem); (ii) the significant impact that even low levels of nighttime light pollution can have; and (iii) the existence of major research gaps, particularly in terms of the impacts of light at population and ecosystem levels, identification of intensity thresholds, and the spatial extent of impacts in the vicinity of artificial lights. © 2013 The Authors. Biological Reviews © 2013 Cambridge Philosophical Society.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
                Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
                pnas
                PNAS
                Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
                National Academy of Sciences
                0027-8424
                1091-6490
                7 February 2022
                15 February 2022
                7 February 2022
                : 119
                : 7
                : e2109217118
                Affiliations
                [1] aEarth and Life Institute, UCLouvain , 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium;
                [2] bFonds de la Recherche Scientifique F.R.S.-FNRS , B-1000 Brussels, Belgium;
                [3] cCentre for Environment and Development, University of Bern , 3012 Bern, Switzerland;
                [4] dDepartment of Geographical Sciences, University of Maryland , College Park, MD 20742;
                [5] eSchool of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh , Edinburgh EH9 3FF, United Kingdom;
                [6] fDepartment of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology, University of Pretoria , Pretoria 0002, South Africa;
                [7] gIndependent Scholar, James Hutton Institute , Aberdeen AB15 8QH, Scotland;
                [8] hSpace Applications Centre, Indian Space Research Organisation , Ahmedabad 380015, India;
                [9] iEarth Observation Directorate, National Institute for Space Research , São José dos Campos, SP 12227-010, Brazil;
                [10] jInstitute of Environmental Science and Technology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , 08193 Bellaterra, Spain;
                [11] kDepartment of Geography, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , 08193 Bellaterra, Spain;
                [12] lInstitució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA) , Barcelona 08010, Spain;
                [13] mDepartment of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, Columbia University , New York, NY 10027;
                [14] nInstituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas and Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba , X5000HUA Córdoba, Argentina;
                [15] oInstitute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100101, China;
                [16] pDepartment of Geography and Environmental Systems, University of Maryland, Baltimore County , Baltimore, MD 21250;
                [17] qInstitute of Social Ecology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna , 1070 Vienna, Austria;
                [18] rEnvironmental Policy Lab, ETH Zürich , 8092 Zurich, Switzerland;
                [19] sJoint Evidence, Data, and Insights Division, Ministry for the Environment , Auckland 1010, New Zealand;
                [20] tInstituto de Ecología Regional, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas , Yerba Buena, Tucumán 4107, Argentina;
                [21] uBaltimore Urban Field Station, USDA Forest Service , Baltimore, MD 21228;
                [22] vWyss Academy for Nature at the University of Bern , 3011 Bern, Switzerland;
                [23] wCentre for Development and Environment (CDE), University of Bern , 3012 Bern, Switzerland;
                [24] xGeography Department, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin , 10099 Berlin, Germany;
                [25] yIntegrative Research Institute on Transformations of Human-Environment Systems, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin , 10099 Berlin, Germany;
                [26] zGrupo de Estudios Ambientales, Instituto de Matemática Aplicada de San Luis, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad Nacional de San Luis , 5700 San Luis, Argentina;
                [27] aaEconomics and Global Climate Cooperation, Environmental Defense Fund , New York, NY 10010;
                [28] bbSchool of Earth, Energy & Environmental Sciences, Stanford University , Stanford, CA 94305;
                [29] ccStanford Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University , Stanford, CA 94305;
                [30] ddLaboratoire d’Ecologie Alpine, CNRS, Université Grenoble Alpes, Université Savoie Mont-Blanc , 38000 Grenoble, France;
                [31] eeCentre for Environment & Development, ATREE , Bengaluru, Karnataka 560064, India;
                [32] ffIndian Institute of Science Education & Research , Pune 411008, India;
                [33] ggDepartment of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen , 1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark;
                [34] hhInstitute of Geography, University of Bern , 3012 Bern, Switzerland;
                [35] iiEarth and Sustainability Science Research Centre, University of New South Wales , Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia;
                [36] jjDepartment of Geography, Ohio State University , Columbus, OH 43202;
                [37] kkSchool of Development, Azim Premji University 562125 Karnataka, India;
                [38] llNatural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University , Fort Collins, CO 80523;
                [39] mmEcosystem Science and Sustainability Department, Colorado State University , Fort Collins, CO 80523;
                [40] nnSchool of Planning, Faculty of the Environment, Waterloo Institute for Complexity and Innovation, University of Waterloo , Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3G1;
                [41] ooBasque Centre for Climate Change, BC3 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain;
                [42] ppIkerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science , 48009 Bilbao, Bizkaia, Spain;
                [43] qqDepartment of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen , 2630 Taastrup, Denmark;
                [44] rrInstitute for Resources, Environment, and Sustainability, School of Public Policy and Global Affairs, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4;
                [45] ssGraduate School of Geography, Clark University , Worcester, MA 01610;
                [46] ttYale School of the Environment, Yale University , New Haven, CT 06511;
                [47] uuInstitute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
                [48] vvSustainable Use of Natural Resources (430c), Institute of Social Sciences in Agriculture, University of Hohenheim , 70599 Stuttgart, Germany;
                [49] wwField Science Center for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University , 060-0809 Hokkaido, Japan;
                [50] xxField to Market: The Alliance for Sustainable Agriculture , Washington, DC 20002;
                [51] yySchool of Geographical Science and Urban Planning, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85281;
                [52] zzSchool of Sustainability, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85281;
                [53] aaaGlobal Institute of Sustainability and Innovation, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85281;
                [54] bbbAquatic Ecology Laboratory, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University , Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan;
                [55] cccFaculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente , Enschede 7522 NB, The Netherlands;
                [56] dddWater and Land Resource Centre, Addis Ababa University , Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
                Author notes

                Edited by Gretchen Daily, Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA; received June 7, 2021; accepted November 13, 2021

                Author contributions: P. Meyfroidt, A.d.B., and C.M.R. designed research; P. Meyfroidt, A.d.B, and C.M.R. performed research; P. Meyfroidt, A.d.B., C.M.R., E.A., R.A., A.C., G.C., E.C., R.D., S.D., J.D., E.C.E., K.-H.E., J.A.F., R.D.G., N.E.G., H.R.G., J.M.G., H.H., A.H., P.H., E.G.J., S.K., T.K., E.F.L., S. Lavorel, S. Lele, O.M., P. Messerli, G.M., D.K.M., H.N., J.Ø.N., D.S.O., D.C.P., U.P., J.R.P., N.R., A.R., R.R.C., K.C.S., V.S., H.S., A.T., B.L.T., J.U., T.V., P.H.V., G.Z., and E.K.H.J.z.E. wrote the paper; and E.A., R.A., A.C., G.C., E.C., R.D., S.D., J.D., E.C.E., K.-H.E., J.A.F., R.D.G., N.E.G., H.R.G., J.M.G., H.H., A.H., P.H., E.G.J., S.K., T.K., E.F.L., S. Lavorel, S. Lele, O.M., P. Messerli, G.M., D.K.M., H.N., J.Ø.N., D.S.O., D.C.P., U.P., J.R.P., N.R., A.R., R.R.C., K.C.S., V.S., H.S., A.T., B.L.T., J.U., T.V., P.H.V., G.Z., and E.K.H.J.z.E. contributed to the content, reviewed, and edited the paper.

                2A.d.B. and C.M.R. contributed equally to this work.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1047-9794
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0924-6053
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1802-0128
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5374-3866
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2762-9728
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7970-4411
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3332-4621
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0012-4612
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5687-803X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2006-3362
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8335-4159
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6171-263X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2104-5446
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8905-8169
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5730-5484
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9775-142X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7037-089X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3876-6779
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0286-6348
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6168-5387
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4175-9406
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1585-0724
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9518-7511
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8988-193X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5696-236X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0777-3028
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2676-380X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4928-2446
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2975-5856
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8968-3594
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6507-521X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5111-687X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9970-5902
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6977-7104
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6698-2455
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9168-6057
                Article
                202109217
                10.1073/pnas.2109217118
                8851509
                35131937
                1e8626d9-7a3a-462e-9047-4332d9684a0d
                Copyright © 2022 the Author(s). Published by PNAS.

                This open access article is distributed under Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC BY).

                History
                Page count
                Pages: 12
                Funding
                Funded by: EC | H2020 | H2020 Priority Excellent Science | H2020 European Research Council (ERC) 100010663
                Award ID: 677140
                Award Recipient : Patrick Meyfroidt Award Recipient : Karl-Heinz Erb Award Recipient : Helmut Haberl
                Funded by: EC | H2020 | H2020 Priority Excellent Science | H2020 European Research Council (ERC) 100010663
                Award ID: 757995
                Award Recipient : Patrick Meyfroidt Award Recipient : Karl-Heinz Erb Award Recipient : Helmut Haberl
                Funded by: EC | H2020 | H2020 Priority Excellent Science | H2020 European Research Council (ERC) 100010663
                Award ID: 741950
                Award Recipient : Patrick Meyfroidt Award Recipient : Karl-Heinz Erb Award Recipient : Helmut Haberl
                Funded by: EC | H2020 | H2020 Priority Excellent Science | H2020 Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) 100010665
                Award ID: 765408
                Award Recipient : Patrick Meyfroidt Award Recipient : Esteve Corbera Award Recipient : Helmut Haberl Award Recipient : Andreas Heinimann Award Recipient : Tobias Kuemmerle Award Recipient : Eric F Lambin Award Recipient : Ole Mertz Award Recipient : Peter Messerli Award Recipient : Jonas Ostergaard Nielsen Award Recipient : Peter H Verburg
                Funded by: "María de Maeztu" Programme for Units of Excellence of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation
                Award ID: CEX2019-000940-M
                Award Recipient : Emma Archer Award Recipient : Esteve Corbera Award Recipient : Janet A Fisher Award Recipient : Sharachchandra Lele Award Recipient : Unai Pascual
                Funded by: "María de Maeztu" Programme for Units of Excellence of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation
                Award ID: MDM-2017-0714
                Award Recipient : Emma Archer Award Recipient : Esteve Corbera Award Recipient : Janet A Fisher Award Recipient : Sharachchandra Lele Award Recipient : Unai Pascual
                Funded by: National Research Foundation's Rated Researcher's Award
                Award ID: 119789
                Award Recipient : Emma Archer Award Recipient : Esteve Corbera Award Recipient : Janet A Fisher Award Recipient : Sharachchandra Lele Award Recipient : Unai Pascual
                Funded by: UK Natural Environment Research Council Landscape Decisions Fellowship
                Award ID: NE/V007904/1
                Award Recipient : Emma Archer Award Recipient : Esteve Corbera Award Recipient : Janet A Fisher Award Recipient : Sharachchandra Lele Award Recipient : Unai Pascual
                Funded by: NERC-Formas-DBT
                Award ID: BT/IN/TaSE/73/SL/2018-19
                Award Recipient : Emma Archer Award Recipient : Esteve Corbera Award Recipient : Janet A Fisher Award Recipient : Sharachchandra Lele Award Recipient : Unai Pascual
                Categories
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                Social Sciences
                Sustainability Science

                land use,sustainability,social-ecological systems,governance

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