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      Are Mast Cells MASTers in Cancer?

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          Abstract

          Prolonged low-grade inflammation or smoldering inflammation is a hallmark of cancer. Mast cells form a heterogeneous population of immune cells with differences in their ultra-structure, morphology, mediator content, and surface receptors. Mast cells are widely distributed throughout all tissues and are stromal components of the inflammatory microenvironment that modulates tumor initiation and development. Although canonically associated with allergic disorders, mast cells are a major source of pro-tumorigenic (e.g., angiogenic and lymphangiogenic factors) and antitumorigenic molecules (e.g., TNF-α and IL-9), depending on the milieu. In certain neoplasias (e.g., gastric, thyroid and Hodgkin’s lymphoma) mast cells play a pro-tumorigenic role, in others (e.g., breast cancer) a protective role, whereas in yet others they are apparently innocent bystanders. These seemingly conflicting results suggest that the role of mast cells and their mediators could be cancer specific. The microlocalization (e.g., peritumoral vs intratumoral) of mast cells is another important aspect in the initiation/progression of solid and hematologic tumors. Increasing evidence in certain experimental models indicates that targeting mast cells and/or their mediators represent a potential therapeutic target in cancer. Thus, mast cells deserve focused consideration also as therapeutic targets in different types of tumors. There are many unanswered questions that should be addressed before we understand whether mast cells are an ally, adversary, or innocent bystanders in human cancers.

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          Why don't we get more cancer? A proposed role of the microenvironment in restraining cancer progression.

          Tumors are like new organs and are made of multiple cell types and components. The tumor competes with the normal microenvironment to overcome antitumorigenic pressures. Before that battle is won, the tumor may exist within the organ unnoticed by the host, referred to as 'occult cancer'. We review how normal tissue homeostasis and architecture inhibit progression of cancer and how changes in the microenvironment can shift the balance of these signals to the procancerous state. We also include a discussion of how this information is being tailored for clinical use.
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            Gene-expression signatures in breast cancer.

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              Lactate: a metabolic key player in cancer.

              Increased glucose uptake and accumulation of lactate, even under normoxic conditions (i.e., aerobic glycolysis or the Warburg Effect), is a common feature of cancer cells. This phenomenon clearly indicates that lactate is not a surrogate of tumor hypoxia. Tumor lactate can predict for metastases and overall survival of patients, as shown by several studies of different entities. Metastasis of tumors is promoted by lactate-induced secretion of hyaluronan by tumor-associated fibroblasts that create a milieu favorable for migration. Lactate itself has been found to induce the migration of cells and cell clusters. Furthermore, radioresistance has been positively correlated with lactate concentrations, suggesting an antioxidative capacity of lactate. Findings on interactions of tumor metabolites with immune cells indicate a contribution of lactate to the immune escape. Furthermore, lactate bridges the gap between high lactate levels in wound healing, chronic inflammation, and cancer development. Tumor cells ensure sufficient oxygen and nutrient supply for proliferation through lactate-induced secretion of VEGF, resulting in the formation of new vessels. In summary, accumulation of lactate in solid tumors is a pivotal and early event in the development of malignancies. The determination of lactate should enter further clinical trials to confirm its relevance in cancer biology. ©2011 AACR
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                URI : http://frontiersin.org/people/u/392297
                URI : http://frontiersin.org/people/u/402335
                URI : http://frontiersin.org/people/u/402351
                URI : http://frontiersin.org/people/u/428481
                URI : http://frontiersin.org/people/u/382283
                URI : http://frontiersin.org/people/u/147729
                URI : http://frontiersin.org/people/u/402339
                Journal
                Front Immunol
                Front Immunol
                Front. Immunol.
                Frontiers in Immunology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-3224
                12 April 2017
                2017
                : 8
                : 424
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Department of Translational Medical Sciences (DiSMeT), Center for Basic and Clinical Immunology Research (CISI), University of Naples Federico II , Naples, Italy
                [2] 2Department of Public Health, University of Naples Federico II, Monaldi Hospital Pharmacy , Naples, Italy
                [3] 3Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and Oncology “Gaetano Salvatore” (IEOS), National Research Council (CNR) , Naples, Italy
                Author notes

                Edited by: Fulvio D’Acquisto, Queen Mary University of London, UK

                Reviewed by: Francesca Levi-Schaffer, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel; Marc Benhamou, Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale (INSERM), France

                *Correspondence: Gianni Marone, marone@ 123456unina.it

                These authors have contributed equally to this work.

                Specialty section: This article was submitted to Inflammation, a section of the journal Frontiers in Immunology

                Article
                10.3389/fimmu.2017.00424
                5388770
                28446910
                1eb1f1eb-d7bc-4668-a3db-b630582f574e
                Copyright © 2017 Varricchi, Galdiero, Loffredo, Marone, Iannone, Marone and Granata.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 15 February 2017
                : 27 March 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 4, Equations: 0, References: 191, Pages: 13, Words: 10883
                Categories
                Immunology
                Review

                Immunology
                angiogenesis,cancer,inflammation,lymphangiogenesis,mast cells
                Immunology
                angiogenesis, cancer, inflammation, lymphangiogenesis, mast cells

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