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      Cervical cancer in low and middle-income countries

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          Abstract

          Cervical cancer is a malignant tumour that occurs in the cervix and is classified into two histological types, adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC); SCC is more common and accounts for 70% of all cases. In 2018 there were ~569,000 new cases of cervical cancer diagnosed worldwide and ~311,000 deaths were attributed to cervical cancer. Of these, between 84 and 90% occurred in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) such as South Africa, India, China and Brazil. The most common cause of cervical cancer is persistent infection caused by the sexually transmitted human papilloma virus. Other factors that contribute to the incidence of cervical cancer include geography, traditional practices and beliefs, the screening levels, socioeconomic status, healthcare access, public awareness, use of oral contraceptives, smoking and co-infection with HIV. An estimated 11 million women from LMICs will be diagnosed with cervical cancer in the next 10–20 years. The aim of this review was to explore various types of genetic and epigenetic factors that influence the development, progression or suppression of cervical cancer.

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          Global estimates of cancer prevalence for 27 sites in the adult population in 2008.

          Recent estimates of global cancer incidence and survival were used to update previous figures of limited duration prevalence to the year 2008. The number of patients with cancer diagnosed between 2004 and 2008 who were still alive at the end of 2008 in the adult population is described by world region, country and the human development index. The 5-year global cancer prevalence is estimated to be 28.8 million in 2008. Close to half of the prevalence burden is in areas of very high human development that comprise only one-sixth of the world's population. Breast cancer continues to be the most prevalent cancer in the vast majority of countries globally; cervix cancer is the most prevalent cancer in much of Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia and prostate cancer dominates in North America, Oceania and Northern and Western Europe. Stomach cancer is the most prevalent cancer in Eastern Asia (including China); oral cancer ranks as the most prevalent cancer in Indian men and Kaposi sarcoma has the highest 5-year prevalence among men in 11 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. The methods used to estimate point prevalence appears to give reasonable results at the global level. The figures highlight the need for long-term care targeted at managing patients with certain very frequently diagnosed cancer forms. To be of greater relevance to cancer planning, the estimation of other time-based measures of global prevalence is warranted. Copyright © 2012 UICC.
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            Sexually transmitted infections among US women and men: prevalence and incidence estimates, 2008.

            Most sexually active people will be infected with a sexually transmitted infection (STI) at some point in their lives. The number of STIs in the United States was previously estimated in 2000. We updated previous estimates to reflect the number of STIs for calendar year 2008. We reviewed available data and literature and conservatively estimated incident and prevalent infections nationally for 8 common STIs: chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, herpes, human papillomavirus, hepatitis B, HIV, and trichomoniasis. Where available, data from nationally representative surveys such as the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were used to provide national estimates of STI prevalence or incidence. The strength of each estimate was rated good, fair, or poor, according to the quality of the evidence. In 2008, there were an estimated 110 million prevalent STIs among women and men in the United States. Of these, more than 20% of infections (22.1 million) were among women and men aged 15 to 24 years. Approximately 19.7 million incident infections occurred in the United States in 2008; nearly 50% (9.8 million) were acquired by young women and men aged 15 to 24 years. Human papillomavirus infections, many of which are asymptomatic and do not cause disease, accounted for most of both prevalent and incident infections. Sexually transmitted infections are common in the United States, with a disproportionate burden among young adolescents and adults. Public health efforts to address STIs should focus on prevention among at-risk populations to reduce the number and impact of STIs.
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              The global burden of women’s cancers: a grand challenge in global health

              Every year, more than 2 million women worldwide are diagnosed with breast or cervical cancer, yet where a woman lives, her socioeconomic status, and agency largely determines whether she will develop one of these cancers and will ultimately survive. In regions with scarce resources, fragile or fragmented health systems, cancer contributes to the cycle of poverty. Proven and cost-effective interventions are available for both these common cancers, yet for so many women access to these is beyond reach. These inequities highlight the urgent need in low-income and middle-income countries for sustainable investments in the entire continuum of cancer control, from prevention to palliative care, and in the development of high-quality population-based cancer registries. In this first paper of the Series on health, equity, and women's cancers, we describe the burden of breast and cervical cancer, with an emphasis on global and regional trends in incidence, mortality, and survival, and the consequences, especially in socioeconomically disadvantaged women in different settings.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Oncol Lett
                Oncol Lett
                OL
                Oncology Letters
                D.A. Spandidos
                1792-1074
                1792-1082
                September 2020
                19 June 2020
                19 June 2020
                : 20
                : 3
                : 2058-2074
                Affiliations
                [1 ]SA-MRC/UP Precision Prevention and Novel Drug Targets for HIV-Associated Cancers Extramural Unit, Pan African Cancer Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Hatfield 0028, South Africa
                [2 ]Bioinformatics and Genomics Centre, School of Medicine, Department of Genetics, Louisiana State University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
                [3 ]National Cancer Centre, Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, P.R. China
                [4 ]Molecular Oncology Research Centre, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Sao Paulo 14784-400, Brazil
                [5 ]Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, Delhi 110029, India
                [6 ]School of Medicine, University of Kwazulu-Natal, Durban, Kwazulu-Natal 4013, South Africa
                [7 ]East African Health Research Commission, East African Community, Bujumbura, Bujumbura Mairie 350, Burundi
                [8 ]Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, Nottinghamshire NG7 2UH, UK
                Author notes
                Correspondence to: Professor Zodwa Dlamini, SA-MRC/UP Precision Prevention and Novel Drug Targets for HIV-Associated Cancers Extramural Unit, Pan African Cancer Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, 1 Bophelo Road, Hatfield 0028, South Africa, E-mail: zodwa.Dlamini@ 123456up.ac.za
                Article
                OL-0-0-11754
                10.3892/ol.2020.11754
                7400218
                32782524
                1ee4e203-96e6-4778-af00-48626fcf491d
                Copyright: © Hull et al.

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.

                History
                : 23 April 2019
                : 16 October 2019
                Categories
                Review

                Oncology & Radiotherapy
                cervical cancer,south africa,india,brazil,tanzania,mirna
                Oncology & Radiotherapy
                cervical cancer, south africa, india, brazil, tanzania, mirna

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