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      Pathos & Ethos: Emotions and Willingness to Pay for Tobacco Products

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          Abstract

          In this article we use data from a multi-country Randomized Control Trial study on the effect of anti-tobacco pictorial warnings on an individual’s emotions and behavior. By exploiting the exogenous variations of images as an instrument, we are able to identify the effect of emotional responses. We use a range of outcome variables, from cognitive (risk perception and depth of processing) to behavioural (willingness to buy and willingness to pay). Our findings suggest that the odds of buying a tobacco product can be reduced by 80% if the negative affect elicited by the images increases by one standard deviation. More importantly from a public policy perspective, not all emotions behave alike, as eliciting shame, anger, or distress proves more effective in reducing smoking than fear and disgust.

          JEL Classification

          C26, C99, D03, I18

          PsycINFO classification

          2360; 3920

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          Most cited references25

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          The positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS): construct validity, measurement properties and normative data in a large non-clinical sample.

          John R Crawford, Julie D Henry (2004)
          To evaluate the reliability and validity of the PANAS (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988b) and provide normative data. Cross-sectional and correlational. The PANAS was administered to a non-clinical sample, broadly representative of the general adult UK population (N = 1,003). Competing models of the latent structure of the PANAS were evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis. Regression and correlational analysis were used to determine the influence of demographic variables on PANAS scores as well as the relationship between the PANAS with measures of depression and anxiety (the HADS and the DASS). The best-fitting model (robust comparative fit index = .94) of the latent structure of the PANAS consisted of two correlated factors corresponding to the PA and NA scales, and permitted correlated error between items drawn from the same mood subcategories (Zevon & Tellegen, 1982). Demographic variables had only very modest influences on PANAS scores and the PANAS exhibited measurement invariance across demographic subgroups. The reliability of the PANAS was high, and the pattern of relationships between the PANAS and the DASS and HADS were consistent with tripartite theory. The PANAS is a reliable and valid measure of the constructs it was intended to assess, although the hypothesis of complete independence between PA and NA must be rejected. The utility of this measure is enhanced by the provision of large-scale normative data. Copyright 2004 The British Psychological Society
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            Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving.

            Alice Isen, Kimberly Daubman, Gary Nowicki (1987)
            Four experiments indicated that positive affect, induced by means of seeing a few minutes of a comedy film or by means of receiving a small bag of candy, improved performance on two tasks that are generally regarded as requiring creative ingenuity: Duncker's (1945) candle task and M. T. Mednick, S. A. Mednick, and E. V. Mednick's (1964) Remote Associates Test. One condition in which negative affect was induced and two in which subjects engaged in physical exercise (intended to represent affectless arousal) failed to produce comparable improvements in creative performance. The influence of positive affect on creativity was discussed in terms of a broader theory of the impact of positive affect on cognitive organization.
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              What's basic about basic emotions?

              Andrew Ortony, Terence J. Turner (1990)
              A widespread assumption in theories of emotion is that there exists a small set of basic emotions. From a biological perspective, this idea is manifested in the belief that there might be neurophysiological and anatomical substrates corresponding to the basic emotions. From a psychological perspective, basic emotions are often held to be the primitive building blocks of other, nonbasic emotions. The content of such claims is examined, and the results suggest that there is no coherent nontrivial notion of basic emotions as the elementary psychological primitives in terms of which other emotions can be explained. Thus, the view that there exist basic emotions out of which all other emotions are built, and in terms of which they can be explained, is questioned, raising the possibility that this position is an article of faith rather than an empirically or theoretically defensible basis for the conduct of emotion research. This suggests that perhaps the notion of basic emotions will not lead to significant progress in the field. An alternative approach to explaining the phenomena that appear to motivate the postulation of basic emotions is presented.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Antonella Gasbarri: Role: Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): PLoS One
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): PLoS ONE
                Journal ID (publisher-id): plos
                Journal ID (pmc): plosone
                Title: PLoS ONE
                Publisher: Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                ISSN (Electronic): 1932-6203
                Publication date (Electronic): 20 October 2015
                Publication date Collection: 2015
                Volume: 10
                Issue: 10
                Electronic Location Identifier: e0139542
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia
                [2 ]Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
                [3 ]University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
                [4 ]London School of Economics and Political Science, London, United Kingdom
                [5 ]University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
                [6 ]Columbia University, New York City, United States of America
                [7 ]Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
                [8 ]Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
                [9 ]CRENoS—Centre for North South Economic Research, Cagliari, Italy
                University of L'Aquila, ITALY
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Conceived and designed the experiments: FB CC GAV AC PO. Performed the experiments: FB CC GAV AI. Analyzed the data: FB. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: FB GAV FL FM PO. Wrote the paper: FB CC GAV AC GG AI FLV FM PO CR. Designed the software to format the database: FB. Programmed the protocol: FB AI.

                ‡ These authors also contributed equally to this work.

                Article
                Publisher ID: PONE-D-14-15016
                DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139542
                PMC ID: 4618929
                PubMed ID: 26485272
                SO-VID: 1ef91730-2a63-4fde-a8d3-d8ac8dbc617d
                Copyright statement: Copyright @ 2015
                License:

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited

                History
                Date received : 21 June 2014
                Date accepted : 7 September 2015
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Tables: 9, Pages: 25
                Funding
                This study was funded by the European Commission under Specific Contract No 17.020200-17.030600/12/626060/SANCO.D.4 implementing Framework Contract No EAHC / 2011 / CP / 01/LSE. The views expressed are those of the authors and should not be regarded as stating an official position of the European Commission. After a general discussion on design issues, the funders took no role in data collection, analysis, and interpretation of the findings and the preparation of this manuscript. The funding entity has been informed of the decision to publish the authors' article.
                Categories
                Subject: Research Article

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Uncategorized
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Uncategorized

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