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      Selectively Enhanced Development of Working Memory in Musically Trained Children and Adolescents

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          Abstract

          In the current longitudinal study, we investigated the development of working memory in musically trained and nontrained children and adolescents, aged 9–20. We measured working memory with the Digit Span (DS) forwards and backwards tests ( N = 106) and the Trail-Making A and B (TMT-A and B; N = 104) tests three times, in 2011, 2013, and 2016. We expected that musically trained participants would outperform peers with no musical training. Indeed, we found that the younger musically trained participants, in particular, outperformed their nontrained peers in the TMT-A, TMT-B and DS forwards tests. These tests all primarily require active maintenance of a rule in memory or immediate recall. In contrast, we found no group differences in the backwards test that requires manipulation and updating of information in working memory. These results suggest that musical training is more strongly associated with heightened working memory capacity and maintenance than enhanced working memory updating, especially in late childhood and early adolescence.

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          Executive Functions

          Executive functions (EFs) make possible mentally playing with ideas; taking the time to think before acting; meeting novel, unanticipated challenges; resisting temptations; and staying focused. Core EFs are inhibition [response inhibition (self-control—resisting temptations and resisting acting impulsively) and interference control (selective attention and cognitive inhibition)], working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking “outside the box,” seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). The developmental progression and representative measures of each are discussed. Controversies are addressed (e.g., the relation between EFs and fluid intelligence, self-regulation, executive attention, and effortful control, and the relation between working memory and inhibition and attention). The importance of social, emotional, and physical health for cognitive health is discussed because stress, lack of sleep, loneliness, or lack of exercise each impair EFs. That EFs are trainable and can be improved with practice is addressed, including diverse methods tried thus far.
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            The Nature and Organization of Individual Differences in Executive Functions: Four General Conclusions.

            Executive functions (EFs)-a set of general-purpose control processes that regulate one's thoughts and behaviors-have become a popular research topic lately and have been studied in many subdisciplines of psychological science. This article summarizes the EF research that our group has conducted to understand the nature of individual differences in EFs and their cognitive and biological underpinnings. In the context of a new theoretical framework that we have been developing (the unity/diversity framework), we describe four general conclusions that have emerged from our research. Specifically, we argue that individual differences in EFs, as measured with simple laboratory tasks, (1) show both unity and diversity (different EFs are correlated yet separable); (2) reflect substantial genetic contributions; (3) are related to various clinically and societally important phenomena; and (4) show some developmental stability.
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              A developmental perspective on executive function.

              This review article examines theoretical and methodological issues in the construction of a developmental perspective on executive function (EF) in childhood and adolescence. Unlike most reviews of EF, which focus on preschoolers, this review focuses on studies that include large age ranges. It outlines the development of the foundational components of EF-inhibition, working memory, and shifting. Cognitive and neurophysiological assessments show that although EF emerges during the first few years of life, it continues to strengthen significantly throughout childhood and adolescence. The components vary somewhat in their developmental trajectories. The article relates the findings to long-standing issues of development (e.g., developmental sequences, trajectories, and processes) and suggests research needed for constructing a developmental framework encompassing early childhood through adolescence. © 2010 The Authors. Child Development © 2010 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Integr Neurosci
                Front Integr Neurosci
                Front. Integr. Neurosci.
                Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1662-5145
                06 November 2019
                2019
                : 13
                : 62
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Cognitive Brain Research Unit, University of Helsinki , Helsinki, Finland
                [2] 2Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Medicum, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki , Helsinki, Finland
                [3] 3Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki , Helsinki, Finland
                [4] 4CICERO Learning, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki , Helsinki, Finland
                [5] 5Turku PET Centre , Turku, Finland
                Author notes

                Edited by: Paul J. Colombo, Tulane University, United States

                Reviewed by: Fabiana Silva Ribeiro, Portuguese Catholic University, Portugal; Lutz Jäncke, University of Zurich, Switzerland

                *Correspondence: Katri Annukka Saarikivi katri.saarikivi@ 123456helsinki.fi
                Article
                10.3389/fnint.2019.00062
                6851266
                31780907
                1fc792d2-6581-43e7-bf2c-1f62719c2891
                Copyright © 2019 Saarikivi, Huotilainen, Tervaniemi and Putkinen.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 17 June 2019
                : 07 October 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 2, Equations: 0, References: 112, Pages: 12, Words: 9592
                Categories
                Neuroscience
                Original Research

                Neurosciences
                musical training,longitudinal,working memory,updating,maintenance,development,trail-making test,digit span

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