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      Australasian sky islands act as a diversity pump facilitating peripheral speciation and complex reversal from narrow endemic to widespread ecological supertramp

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          Abstract

          The Australasian archipelago is biologically extremely diverse as a result of a highly puzzling geological and biological evolution. Unveiling the underlying mechanisms has never been more attainable as molecular phylogenetic and geological methods improve, and has become a research priority considering increasing human-mediated loss of biodiversity. However, studies of finer scaled evolutionary patterns remain rare particularly for megadiverse Melanesian biota. While oceanic islands have received some attention in the region, likewise insular mountain blocks that serve as species pumps remain understudied, even though Australasia, for example, features some of the most spectacular tropical alpine habitats in the World. Here, we sequenced almost 2 kb of mitochondrial DNA from the widespread diving beetle Rhantus suturalis from across Australasia and the Indomalayan Archipelago, including remote New Guinean highlands. Based on expert taxonomy with a multigene phylogenetic backbone study, and combining molecular phylogenetics, phylogeography, divergence time estimation, and historical demography, we recover comparably low geographic signal, but complex phylogenetic relationships and population structure within R. suturalis. Four narrowly endemic New Guinea highland species are subordinated and two populations (New Guinea, New Zealand) seem to constitute cases of ongoing speciation. We reveal repeated colonization of remote mountain chains where haplotypes out of a core clade of very widespread haplotypes syntopically might occur with well-isolated ones. These results are corroborated by a Pleistocene origin approximately 2.4 Ma ago, followed by a sudden demographic expansion 600,000 years ago that may have been initiated through climatic adaptations. This study is a snapshot of the early stages of lineage diversification by peripatric speciation in Australasia, and supports New Guinea sky islands as cradles of evolution, in line with geological evidence suggesting very recent origin of high altitudes in the region.

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          Arlequin (version 3.0): An integrated software package for population genetics data analysis

          Arlequin ver 3.0 is a software package integrating several basic and advanced methods for population genetics data analysis, like the computation of standard genetic diversity indices, the estimation of allele and haplotype frequencies, tests of departure from linkage equilibrium, departure from selective neutrality and demographic equilibrium, estimation or parameters from past population expansions, and thorough analyses of population subdivision under the AMOVA framework. Arlequin 3 introduces a completely new graphical interface written in C++, a more robust semantic analysis of input files, and two new methods: a Bayesian estimation of gametic phase from multi-locus genotypes, and an estimation of the parameters of an instantaneous spatial expansion from DNA sequence polymorphism. Arlequin can handle several data types like DNA sequences, microsatellite data, or standard multi-locus genotypes. A Windows version of the software is freely available on http://cmpg.unibe.ch/software/arlequin3.
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            The Phanerozoic record of global sea-level change.

            K. Miller (2005)
            We review Phanerozoic sea-level changes [543 million years ago (Ma) to the present] on various time scales and present a new sea-level record for the past 100 million years (My). Long-term sea level peaked at 100 +/- 50 meters during the Cretaceous, implying that ocean-crust production rates were much lower than previously inferred. Sea level mirrors oxygen isotope variations, reflecting ice-volume change on the 10(4)- to 10(6)-year scale, but a link between oxygen isotope and sea level on the 10(7)-year scale must be due to temperature changes that we attribute to tectonically controlled carbon dioxide variations. Sea-level change has influenced phytoplankton evolution, ocean chemistry, and the loci of carbonate, organic carbon, and siliciclastic sediment burial. Over the past 100 My, sea-level changes reflect global climate evolution from a time of ephemeral Antarctic ice sheets (100 to 33 Ma), through a time of large ice sheets primarily in Antarctica (33 to 2.5 Ma), to a world with large Antarctic and large, variable Northern Hemisphere ice sheets (2.5 Ma to the present).
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              Signature of ancient population growth in a low-resolution mitochondrial DNA mismatch distribution.

              A mismatch distribution is a tabulation of the number of pairwise differences among all DNA sequences in a sample. In a population that has been stationary for a long time these distributions from nonrecombinant DNA sequences become ragged and erratic, whereas a population that has been growing generates mismatch distributions that are smooth and have a peak. The position of the peak reflects the time of the population growth. The signature of an ancient population expansion is apparent even in the low-resolution mtDNA typings described by Merriwether et al. (1991). The smoothness of the mismatch distribution, an indicator of population expansion, is hardly affected by population structure, whereas mean sequence divergence increases in a pooled sample from highly isolated subpopulations.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Ecol Evol
                Ecol Evol
                ece3
                Ecology and Evolution
                Blackwell Publishing Ltd
                2045-7758
                2045-7758
                April 2013
                07 March 2013
                : 3
                : 4
                : 1031-1049
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Zoological State Collection Münchhausenstraße 21, Munich, 81247, Germany
                [2 ]Papua New Guinea Institute for Biological research (PNG-IBR) Goroka, Papua New Guinea
                [3 ]Jurusan Biology, FMIPA-Universitas Cendrawasih Kampus Baru, Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia
                [4 ]GeoBioCenter, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany
                Author notes
                Emmanuel F.A. Toussaint, Zoological State Collection, Münchhausenstraße 21, Munich, 81247, Germany. Tel: +49 898107155; Fax: +49 898107300; E-mail: Toussaint@ 123456zsm.mwn.de

                Funding Information This study was supported by German Science Foundation (DFG) grants BA2152/6-1, 7-1 and 11-1.

                Article
                10.1002/ece3.517
                3631412
                23610642
                2075679f-fc45-47c2-96ba-ab88b4fd0846
                © 2013 Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

                Re-use of this article is permitted in accordance with the Creative Commons Deed, Attribution 2.5, which does not permit commercial exploitation.

                History
                : 11 January 2013
                : 29 January 2013
                : 01 February 2013
                Categories
                Original Research

                Evolutionary Biology
                australian region,diversity pump,highlands,new guinea,new zealand,peripheral speciation

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