The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) was formed in 1992 as
an international council of councils and currently includes representatives from the
American Heart Association (AHA), the European Resuscitation Council, the Heart and
Stroke Foundation of Canada, the Australian and New Zealand Committee on Resuscitation,
the Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa, the InterAmerican Heart Foundation,
and the Resuscitation Council of Asia.
1
The ILCOR mission is to promote, disseminate, and advocate international implementation
of evidence-informed resuscitation and first aid by using transparent evaluation and
consensus summary of scientific data. Resuscitation includes all responses necessary
to treat sudden life-threatening events affecting the cardiovascular and respiratory
systems, with a focus on sudden cardiac arrest. As in 2015, this 2020 consensus publication
also includes first aid topics as part of the international review and consensus recommendations.
There are 6 ILCOR Task Forces: (adult) Basic Life Support (BLS); (adult) Advanced
Life Support (ALS); Pediatric (basic and advanced) Life Support (PLS); Neonatal Life
Support (NLS); Education, Implementation, and Teams (EIT); and First Aid. This 2020
International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) and Emergency Cardiovascular
Care (ECC) Science With Treatment Recommendations (CoSTR) includes a separate publication
from each of the 6 task forces as well as this Executive Summary and a publication
detailing the evidence evaluation process and management of potential conflicts of
interest.
In this publication, the separate sections for each task force highlights the “hot”
topics and the new CoSTRs developed. Not all relevant references are cited here; refer
to each task force publication in this supplement for details of each of the reviews
and task force deliberations. In addition, each task force publication summarizes
additional reviews that are not highlighted in this Executive Summary.
Evidence Evaluation Process and Management of Potential Conflicts of Interest
Evidence Evaluation Process
ILCOR is committed to a rigorous and continuous review of scientific literature focused
on resuscitation, cardiac arrest, relevant conditions requiring first aid, related
education and implementation strategies, and systems of care. After the publication
of the 2015 International Consensus on CPR and ECC Science With Treatment Recommendations,
ILCOR also committed to sponsoring a continuous evidence-evaluation process, with
topics prioritized for review by the task forces and with CoSTR updates published
annually. For this 2020 CoSTR, the 6 ILCOR task forces performed structured reviews
of 184 topics, completing the most ambitious evidence review that ILCOR has attempted
to date.
The ILCOR systematic review process continues to be based on the methodological principles
published by the National Academy of Health and Medicine (formerly the Institute of
Medicine)
2
; Cochrane3, 4; Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation
(GRADE)
5
; and the reporting guidelines based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Reviews and Meta-Analyses recommendations.6, 7
Three types of evidence evaluation provided the basis for this 2020 CoSTR: the systematic
review, the scoping review, and the evidence update. Based on recommendations from
the ILCOR Scientific Affairs Committee and agreement of the task forces, only systematic
reviews could result in new or modified treatment recommendations.
Systematic Reviews
The systematic review (SysRev) represents the most structured and detailed of the
reviews. It requires a rigorous process following strict methodology to answer a specific
question, and each SysRev resulted in the generation of the task force CoSTR included
in this publication. For this 2020 CoSTR process, ILCOR member councils agreed that
treatment recommendations could be changed only as the result of a SysRev.
The SysRevs were performed by a knowledge synthesis unit (groups of well-respected
researchers with methodological expertise in performing SysRevs), an expert systematic
reviewer (an individual with methodological expertise and a track record of publications),
or the task force. Many of the reviews resulted in separate published SysRevs.
To begin the SysRev, the task force and reviewers phrased the question to be answered
in terms of the PICOST (population, intervention, comparator, outcome, study design,
time) format. The literature searches were developed and conducted by information
specialists who used, at a minimum, the MEDLINE, Embase, and the Cochrane Library
databases. The clinical experts for the SysRev reviewed all identified studies and
selected those that met inclusion criteria. The reviewers rated the risk of bias for
each study, analysed the data, and performed meta-analyses as appropriate. The reviewers
used the GRADE framework to rate the certainty/confidence in the estimates of the
effect of an intervention or assessment across a body of evidence for each of the
predefined outcomes; certainty, or confidence, was rated as high, moderate, low, or
very low. Evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) generally began the analysis
as high-certainty evidence, and evidence from observational studies generally began
the analysis as low-certainty evidence; examination of the evidence using the GRADE
approach could result in either downgrading or upgrading the certainty of evidence.
For additional information, refer to “2020 Evidence Evaluation Process and Management
of Potential Conflicts of Interest” in this supplement.
8a,8b
The data analysis was presented to the task force, and the task force drafted the
summary consensus on science as well as the treatment recommendations. Each treatment
recommendation indicates the strength of the recommendation (recommends = strong,
suggests = weak) and the certainty of the evidence. The structured deliberations that
the task force completed are highlighted in an evidence-to-decision table, with a
table for each new, completed CoSTR included in Appendix A of each task force publication
in this supplement.
Draft 2020 CoSTRs were posted on the ILCOR website
9
for a 2-week comment period. The task forces reviewed the comments and modified the
CoSTR content as needed. Each task force publication in this supplement contains the
final wording of the CoSTR statements as approved by the ILCOR task forces and by
the ILCOR member councils.
Scoping Reviews
Scoping reviews (ScopRevs) are designed to identify the extent, range, and nature
of evidence on a topic or a question. They follow a rigorous process but use a broader
search strategy and were performed by topic experts in consultation with the task
forces. The ScopRev produces a narrative summary of evidence, with tables presenting
key data from the studies identified but with no risk of bias analysis for each study.
The task force analysed the identified evidence and determined its value and implications
for resuscitation practice or research. The rationale for each ScopRev, the summary
of evidence, and task force insights are all highlighted in the body of each task
force publication. If a ScopRev identified substantive evidence that may result in
a future change in ILCOR treatment recommendations, the task force recommended that
a new SysRev be performed. Draft ScopRevs were posted for a 2-week comment period
on the ILCOR website, and the task forces revised text as needed in response to the
public comments. All ScopRevs are included in their entirety in Appendix B of each
task force publication in this supplement.
Evidence Updates
Evidence updates (EvUps) were performed to identify evidence published after the most
recent ILCOR review of the topic. The EvUps were performed by volunteer members of
the task forces or ILCOR member councils, who used the same search strategy that was
used for the previous review. If the search strategy failed to identify new evidence,
the search strategy was broadened to capture any relevant published studies. The task
forces reviewed the EvUps to determine if sufficient evidence was identified to suggest
the need for a new SysRev. All EvUps cited can be viewed in Appendix C of each task
force publication in this supplement.
Potential Impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) on Resuscitation
The CoSTR reviews were all completed by early February 2020. As a result, this document
does not address the topic of the potential influence of coronavirus disease 2019
(COVID-19) on resuscitation practice. An ILCOR writing group was assembled in the
spring of 2020 to identify and evaluate the published evidence regarding risks of
aerosol generation and infection transmission during attempted resuscitation of adults,
children, and infants. This group developed a consensus on science with treatment
recommendations and task force insights. This statement is published as a separate
document.
10
As new evidence emerges, the ILCOR task forces will review and update this statement,
so the reader is referred to the ILCOR website
9
for the most up-to-date recommendations.
Management of Potential Conflicts of Interest
ILCOR followed the rigorous conflict-of-interest (COI) policies that have been used
successfully in previous years. Anyone involved in any part of the process was required
to disclose all commercial relationships and other potential conflicts by using the
standard AHA online COI disclosure process. Task force members as well as reviewers
and collaborators all completed this online disclosure process before they were allowed
to perform reviews and take part in discussions. Participants were asked to be sensitive
to commercial conflicts as well as to any potential intellectual conflicts, such as
having authored key studies related to a topic or being involved in ongoing studies
related to a topic. AHA staff reviewed the disclosures before appointment to ensure
that no disclosures were significant enough to preclude participation. Disclosure
information for writing group members is listed in Appendix 1. Disclosure information
for peer reviewers is listed in Appendix 2.
During in-person meetings, each participant was assigned a COI number, and a full
list of disclosures was available to all participants throughout the meeting. Participants
were required to state any relevant conflicts during in-person meetings as well as
on webinars and conference calls and were required to abstain from voting on any wording
of the consensus on science or treatment recommendations for any topics related to
their potential conflicts. AHA staff members assisted the task force chairs in monitoring
compliance. Any COI-related issues were brought to the attention of the task force
chairs and the COI co-chairs. At each meeting, participants were notified of a toll-free
telephone number to call to anonymously report any COI issues; no calls were received.
Basic Life Support
Hot Topics
CPR During Transport
The question of whether to transport a cardiac arrest victim to the hospital or complete
CPR on the scene continues to be controversial. This topic has not been reviewed since
2005, and the BLS Task Force chose to undertake a ScopRev to determine if there was
sufficient new evidence to warrant a SysRev. Eight nonrandomized studies reported
that among patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) transported with CPR
in progress, return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) was achieved in the emergency
department in approximately 9.5%, with 2.9% surviving to hospital discharge.
Manikin studies consistently document poorer CPR quality during transport while clinical
studies evaluating the quality of CPR during transport report conflicting results.
Three RCTs comparing manual CPR with mechanical CPR during transport showed no benefit
from mechanical CPR with respect to ROSC or survival to discharge. Manikin studies
indicate that mechanical CPR provided consistent CPR whereas the quality of manual
CPR declined during transport. Nonrandomized studies showed that duration of transport
with CPR and distance transported with CPR does not adversely impact patient outcomes.
There are many facets to this question, and on the basis of the evidence identified,
the task force concluded that there was a need for more than 1 SysRev.
Several questions remain unanswered, such as whether clinical outcomes are affected
by the decision to transport with CPR in progress and when the decision to transport
with ongoing CPR should be made. The use of feedback devices could improve the quality
of CPR during transport. However, an important consideration is the risk of harm to
personnel who perform manual CPR during transport—there is little evidence for this,
but many anecdotal reports attest to the potential risk to unrestrained personnel
in the back of a moving ambulance.
CPR Before Calling for Help for Adults With OHCA
The question of whether to first start CPR or call for help for adults with OHCA is
likely to be influenced by the wide availability of mobile phones with a hands-free
option, which makes it possible to call emergency medical services (EMS) and start
CPR simultaneously. The SysRev identified just 1 cohort study including 17 461 adults
with OHCA from a national registry of 925 288 cases.
11
Analysis was limited to cases in which lay rescuers witnessed the adult cardiac arrest
and performed CPR without the need for dispatcher assistance. The groups differed
in many respects, and despite adjustment, residual confounding was likely. The 3 groups
(call and CPR first, call first, and CPR first) all had similar rates of survival
with favourable outcome. The BLS Task Force chose to make a discordant recommendation
(a strong recommendation despite very low-certainty evidence) that for an adult with
OHCA, a lone bystander with a mobile phone should phone EMS, activate the speaker
or other hands-free option on the mobile phone, and immediately begin CPR, with dispatcher
assistance if required. If a lone rescuer must leave an adult victim to phone EMS,
the priority should be prompt activation of EMS before returning to the victim to
initiate CPR as soon as possible.
Resuscitation Care for Suspected Opioid-Associated Emergencies
Deaths from opioid overdose are increasing substantially, particularly in the United
States. This topic was reviewed in 2015, but no treatment recommendation was made.
12a,12b
An updated SysRev on this topic was considered essential to inform best-practice guidelines
for bystander resuscitation for suspected opioid-induced emergencies. No studies were
identified that compared bystander-administered naloxone (intramuscular or intranasal)
plus conventional CPR with conventional CPR only. As a response to the growing opioid
epidemic, naloxone has been widely distributed by healthcare authorities to laypeople
in various opioid-overdose prevention schemes. A recent SysRev identified 22 observational
studies evaluating the effect of overdose education and naloxone distribution and
found an association between implementation of these programs and decreased mortality
rates.
13
On the basis of expert opinion, the BLS Task Force suggested that CPR be started without
delay on any unresponsive person who is not breathing normally and that naloxone be
used by lay rescuers in suspected opioid-related respiratory or circulatory arrest.
Feedback for CPR Quality
CPR feedback or prompt devices are intended to improve CPR quality, the probability
of ROSC, and survival from cardiac arrest. Real-time CPR guidance devices can be categorized
as (1) digital audiovisual feedback, including corrective audio prompts; (2) analogue
audio and tactile clicker feedback for chest compression depth and release; and (3)
metronome guidance for chest compression rate. Several additional studies were identified
in this updated SysRev. This topic proved particularly controversial. Most higher-certainty
data did not demonstrate a clinically or statistically significant association between
real-time feedback and improved patient outcomes; furthermore, these devices require
resources to purchase and implement. On the other hand, several studies demonstrated
clinically important improvements in outcomes associated with the use of feedback
devices.
A permissive recommendation was considered appropriate because of the role that these
devices play in CPR quality monitoring, benchmarking, and quality-improvement programs.
The BLS Task Force agreed on a weak recommendation for healthcare systems to consider
CPR feedback devices, given the evidence that they improve the quality of CPR and
there was no signal of patient harm in the data reviewed. The task force highlighted
that there was no consistent signal indicating that the real-time feedback function
of these devices has a significant effect on individual cardiac arrest patient outcomes,
suggesting that the devices should not be implemented for this reason alone outside
of a comprehensive quality-assurance program.
Analysis of Rhythm During Chest Compressions
Artifact-filtering algorithms for the analysis of electrocardiographic rhythms during
CPR have been proposed as a method to reduce pauses in chest compressions and thereby
increase the quality of CPR. Most of the 14 studies included in this SysRev used previously
collected electrocardiograms, electric impedance, and/or accelerometer signals recorded
during CPR to evaluate the ability of algorithms or machine learning to detect shockable
rhythms during chest compressions. None of these studies evaluated the effect of the
artifact-filtering algorithms on any critical or important outcomes, but they provide
insights into the potential benefits of this technology. The BLS Task Force prioritized
avoiding the costs of introducing a new technology when its effects on patient outcomes
and the risk of harm remain to be determined; thus, the task force suggested against
the routine use of artifact-filtering algorithms for analysis of ECG rhythms during
CPR. The task force made a weak recommendation for further research because (a) there
is currently insufficient evidence to support a decision for or against routine use,
(b) further research may reduce uncertainty about the effects, and (c) further research
is thought to be of good value for the anticipated costs.
New Systematic Reviews
Dispatch Diagnosis of Cardiac Arrest
It is not known if there are specific call characteristics that impact the ability
of emergency medical dispatchers to recognize cardiac arrest. This SysRev identified
a wide variety of algorithms and criteria used by dispatch centres to identify cardiac
arrest and other medical emergencies. There was great variability in the accuracy
of these algorithms and the criteria for recognizing OHCA in adults. The BLS Task
Force recognized that minimizing the frequency of missed cardiac arrest events may
increase the frequency of false-positive cases.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The task force recommended that dispatch centres
implement a standardized algorithm and/or standardized criteria to immediately determine
if a patient is in cardiac arrest at the time of an emergency call. It was also recommended
that dispatch centres monitor and track diagnostic capability.
Firm Surface for CPR
This topic was last reviewed by the BLS Task Force in 2010.
14a,14b
The evidence identified in this latest SysRev was grouped under the subheadings of
mattress type, floor compared with bed, and backboard. The task force noted that effective
manual compression depths can be achieved even on a soft surface if the CPR provider
increases overall compression depth to compensate for mattress compression. Manikin
studies indicate a marginal benefit to manual chest compression depth from the use
of a backboard but use of these may cause significant interruption in chest compressions,
and they have significant cost and training implications.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendations have been updated
from 2010; they are all weak recommendations based on very low-certainty evidence.
The BLS Task Force suggests performing manual chest compressions on a firm surface
when possible; this includes activation of a bed’s CPR mode if it has this feature.
During in-hospital cardiac arrest, the task force suggests against moving a patient
from a bed to the floor to improve chest compression depth. The task force was unable
to make a recommendation about the use of backboards because the confidence in effect
estimates was so low.
Starting CPR: Compressions-Airway-Breaths Versus Airway-Breaths-Compressions
Although most adult BLS guidelines recommend commencing chest compressions before
giving rescue breaths, there is still considerable debate about this sequence. This
SysRev did not identify any additional studies published after the 2015 ILCOR review.
12a,12b
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.
12a,12b
CPR Before Calling for Help for Adults With OHCA
This topic is discussed in more detail in the BLS Hot Topics section earlier in this
publication. The SysRev identified just 1 cohort study on which to base the treatment
recommendation.
Effect on treatment recommendations: Despite very low-certainty evidence, for adults
with OHCA, the BLS Task Force made a strong recommendation that a lone bystander with
a mobile phone should dial EMS, activate the speaker or other hands-free option on
the mobile phone, and immediately begin CPR, with dispatcher assistance if required.
Timing of CPR Cycles (2 Minutes Versus Other)
This topic had not been updated since 2015
12a,12b
The current SysRev identified 2 older studies that included comparisons of groups
with different CPR durations between rhythm checks, but both studies were designed
to address the question of CPR first compared with defibrillation first. Consequently,
the certainty of evidence supporting the optimal duration of CPR is low.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.
12a,12b
Hand Position During Compressions
This topic was last reviewed in 2015.
12a,12b
This latest SysRev did not identify any studies that evaluated the effect of any specific
hand position on short-term or long-term survival after cardiac arrest. Physiological
surrogate outcomes were reported in 3 very low-certainty studies.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.
12a,12b
Rhythm Check Timing
During CPR, rhythm checks cause pauses in chest compressions, and frequent pauses
are associated with worse outcomes from cardiac arrest. This SysRev was undertaken
to assess the evidence for optimal timing for rhythm checks. Although only very low-certainty
evidence addressing this question was identified, worse short-term and long-term outcomes
have been reported with immediate rhythm check after shock delivery.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.
12a,12b
Feedback for CPR Quality
Feedback for CPR quality is discussed in more detail in the BLS Hot Topics section
earlier in this publication. This topic was last reviewed in 2015, and several additional
studies were identified in this updated SysRev.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.
12a,12b
Alternative Techniques (Cough CPR, Precordial Thump, Fist Pacing)
This topic was last reviewed in 2010.
14a,14b
Reports on social media continue to advocate cough CPR, and it may be perceived by
the public as an effective way of preventing cardiac arrest. There is no evidence
that cough CPR is effective in OHCA. Precordial thumping and fist pacing are techniques
previously recommended to healthcare professionals.
Effect on treatment recommendations: Although the treatment recommendations remain
essentially unchanged from 2010, the BLS Task Force has updated them to clarify the
special circumstances when these alternative techniques might be appropriate. The
strong recommendation against cough CPR, precordial thump, and fist pacing for cardiac
arrest remains unchanged. The Task Force suggests that fist pacing may be considered
only as a temporizing measure in the exceptional circumstance of a witnessed, monitored,
in-hospital arrest (such as in a cardiac catheterization laboratory) with bradyasystole,
if recognized promptly, before loss of consciousness.
Public-Access Automated External Defibrillator Programs
The impact on outcomes from cardiac arrest after implementation of a public-access
automated external defibrillator (AED) program was last reviewed by ILCOR in 2015,
12a,12b
and SysRevs on the effects of public-access defibrillation on OHCA survival were published
after 2015.15, 16 This updated ILCOR SysRev focused on comparing outcomes in systems
with public-access AED programs with outcomes in systems with a traditional EMS response,
and the review included 1 RCT and 30 observational studies.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The strong recommendation to implement public-access
defibrillation programs for patients with OHCA is unchanged from 2015.
12a,12b
Analysis of Rhythm During Chest Compressions
This topic is discussed in more detail in the BLS Hot Topics section earlier in this
publication. Artifact-filtering algorithms for the analysis of electrocardiographic
rhythm during CPR have been proposed as a method to reduce pauses in chest compressions
and thereby increase the quality of CPR.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The weak recommendation against the routine use
of artifact-filtering algorithms for the analysis of electrocardiographic rhythm during
CPR is unchanged from 2015.
12a,12b
However, the previous weak suggestion that it would be reasonable for EMS systems
that use integrated artifact-filtering algorithms in clinical practice to continue
with their use has been changed to a weak recommendation that the usefulness of artifact-filtering
algorithms for the analysis of electrocardiographic rhythm during CPR be assessed
in clinical trials or research initiatives.
CPR Before Defibrillation
This topic was last reviewed by ILCOR in 2015.
12a,12b
Although previous treatment recommendations for CPR before defibrillation have been
based on RCTs, the results from these trials are inconsistent, and the optimal timing
of defibrillation remains uncertain. No new RCTs were identified.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.
12a,12b
Removal of Foreign Body Airway Obstruction
The topic of foreign body airway obstruction (FBAO) was last reviewed by ILCOR in
2010, and at that time, the principal treatment recommendation was that “chest thrusts,
back blows, or abdominal thrusts are effective for relieving FBAO in conscious adults
and children older than 1 year.”
12a,12b
Recently, manual suction devices (airway clearance devices) that use a vacuum to remove
foreign bodies have become commercially available. These devices have not previously
been reviewed by ILCOR and were included in this SysRev. The data in the peer-reviewed
literature assessing the efficacy of suction-based airway clearance devices comprised
just 1 case series of 9 adults, which the task force deemed insufficient to support
the implementation of a new technology with an associated financial and training cost.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation has been substantially
updated from 2010.
12a,12b
The BLS Task Force suggested that back slaps are used initially in adults and children
with an FBAO and an ineffective cough and that abdominal thrusts are used where back
slaps are ineffective (weak recommendation, very low-certainty evidence). Chest thrusts
are suggested in unconscious adults and children with an FBAO. The task force suggested
that rescuers consider the manual extraction of visible items in the mouth but should
not perform blind finger sweeps in patients with an FBAO and that appropriately skilled
healthcare providers use Magill forceps to remove an FBAO in patients with OHCA caused
by FBAO. The task force suggested that suction-based airway clearance devices should
not be used routinely.
Resuscitation Care for Suspected Opioid-Associated Emergencies
This topic is discussed in more detail in the BLS Hot Topics section earlier in this
publication. In this updated SysRev, no studies were identified that compared bystander-administered
naloxone (intramuscular or intranasal) plus conventional CPR with conventional CPR
only.
Effect on treatment recommendations: No treatment recommendation was made in 2015,
but given the scale of the opioid problem, on this occasion, on the basis of expert
opinion, the BLS Task Force suggested that CPR be started without delay in any unresponsive
person who is not breathing normally, and that naloxone be used by lay rescuers in
suspected opioid-related respiratory or circulatory arrest.
Drowning
Prognostic factors that predict outcome after a drowning incident were last reviewed
in 2015.
12a,12b
Attempting to rescue a submerged victim has substantial resource implications and
may place rescuers at risk; thus, it was deemed important to update this SysRev for
2020. The findings from the 6 new papers identified in this update are consistent
with the 2015 treatment recommendation.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.
12a,12b
Harm From CPR to Victims Not in Cardiac Arrest
Lay rescuers may not begin CPR even when a victim is in cardiac arrest because of
concern that delivering chest compressions to a person who is not in cardiac arrest
could cause serious harm. Evidence that chest compressions are unlikely to cause harm
in these circumstances may encourage more bystanders to commence CPR for cardiac arrest
victims. This topic was last reviewed in 2015, and this updated SysRev did not find
any studies.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.
12a,12b
Additional Reviews
The BLS Task Force also evaluated 3 other ScopRevs and 1 EvUp. These reviews, per
ILCOR agreement, did not change treatment recommendations, but several resulted in
the suggestion for new SysRevs.
Advanced Life Support
Hot Topics
Vasopressors During Cardiac Arrest
In 2019, the ILCOR ALS Task Force published a SysRev and meta-analysis
17
and a CoSTR18, 19 on this topic. The meta-analysis of 2 placebo-controlled trials
showed that after OHCA, epinephrine increases ROSC, survival to discharge, and survival
at 3 months but did not show an increase in survival to discharge with favourable
neurological outcome.17, 20, 21 The much larger and more recent trial (8000 patients)
20
found no difference in survival with favourable or unfavourable neurological outcome
at 3 months; thus, the impact of epinephrine administration on neurological outcome
for patients with OHCA remains uncertain.
Another meta-analysis of these 2 RCTs has shown that relative to placebo, the effects
of adrenaline on ROSC are greater for patients with an initially nonshockable rhythm
than for those with shockable rhythms.
22
Similar patterns are observed for longer-term survival outcomes, but the differences
in effects are less pronounced.
The ALS Task Force recommends giving epinephrine as soon as feasible in cardiac arrest
with nonshockable rhythms unless there is a clearly reversible cause that can be addressed
rapidly. The optimal timing for epinephrine in patients with shockable rhythms is
unknown. The task force suggests administering epinephrine after initial defibrillation
attempts have been unsuccessful; however, the optimal timing or number of shocks after
which epinephrine should be administered remains unclear.
There are few data to guide the specific dose and dose interval of epinephrine during
cardiopulmonary resuscitation; however, the 2 OHCA RCTs comparing epinephrine with
placebo used standard dose epinephrine (1 mg intravenous [IV] or intraosseous [IO]
every 3–5 minutes).
There is limited RCT evidence on the use of epinephrine for in-hospital cardiac arrest;
therefore, on the basis of the evidence for OHCA, in 2019 the ILCOR ALS Task Force
made the same recommendations for epinephrine administration for in-hospital and OHCA.
The use of vasopressin alone or in combination with epinephrine does not improve outcomes
in comparison with epinephrine alone; thus, to reduce complexity, epinephrine alone
is suggested.
Targeted Temperature Management
Targeted temperature management (TTM) has been the subject of considerable controversy
for many years. A SysRev of TTM and treatment recommendations was included in the
2015 CoSTR.23, 24, 25, 26
Several studies have been published after 2015, but the most important is HYPERION
(Therapeutic Hypothermia After Cardiac Arrest in Non Shockable Rhythm), a French trial
in which 581 adult, comatose patients with OHCA and in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA)
and an initial nonshockable rhythm were randomized to either TTM with a target temperature
of 33 °C or TTM with a temperature of 37 °C, both for 24 hours.
27
At 90 days, 10.2% in the 33 °C group were alive with a Cerebral Performance Category
score of 1 or 2 (the primary outcome) compared with 5.7% in the normothermia group
(risk difference, 4.5%; 95% CI, 0.1–8.9; P = 0.04). There was no difference in mortality
at 90 days (81.3% versus 83.2%; risk difference, −1.9%; 95% CI, −8.0 to 4.3).
This trial reinforces the 2015 ILCOR treatment recommendations to consider TTM, targeting
a constant temperature between 32 °C and 36 °C in patients who remain comatose after
resuscitation from either IHCA or OHCA with an initial nonshockable rhythm.25, 26
This may be considered by some as controversial because, despite the result of the
HYPERION trial, it remains a weak recommendation. However, the ALS Task Force chose
to delay updating this SysRev until the completion and publication of the TTM-2 (Targeted
Hypothermia Versus Targeted Normothermia After Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest) RCT
(NCT02908308). Instead, EvUps on this topic have been undertaken to assist in formulating
regional guidelines.
Double Sequential Defibrillation
Patients in refractory ventricular fibrillation, comprising about 20% of patients
with ventricular fibrillation/pulseless ventricular tachycardia, have significantly
lower rates of survival than patients who respond to standard resuscitative treatments.
Increasingly, these patients are being treated with double (dual) sequential defibrillation—the
use of 2 defibrillators to deliver 2 overlapping shocks or 2 rapid sequential shocks—as
a possible means of increasing ventricular fibrillation termination rates. The ALS
Task Force’s SysRev identified only observational studies that were at critical or
serious risk of bias because of confounding, and the task force discussed the results
of a small RCT comparing standard defibrillation with changing pad position or double
sequential defibrillation.
28
Given this very low-certainty evidence, the task force suggested against the routine
use of a double sequential defibrillation strategy to treat cardiac arrest with a
shockable rhythm.
IV Versus IO Drug Delivery
The IO route is being used more frequently to deliver drugs during resuscitation.
Although some EMS personnel are using the IO route in preference to the IV route for
drug delivery in cardiac arrest, most commonly, the IO route is used only after failed
attempts at IV cannulation or when IV cannulation is likely to be very difficult.
Several observational studies have documented an association between IO drug delivery
during resuscitation and a worse outcome in comparison with IV drug delivery. However,
such studies are likely to include considerable bias. Subgroup analyses from 2 recent
RCTs showed no significant interaction between the IO and IV routes for the delivery
of epinephrine or placebo
29
or amiodarone, lidocaine, or placebo,
30
although the point estimates generally favoured IV access. The ALS Task Force decided
to suggest the IV route for the first attempt for drug delivery during adult cardiac
arrest, but if IV attempts fail or IV access is not feasible, IO access is suggested.
Prospective studies will be important to determine whether drug delivery first by
IV or IO route impacts long-term outcomes in cardiac arrest.
Point of Care Echocardiography for Prognostication During CPR
In 2015, the ALS Task Force addressed the question of whether the use of cardiac ultrasound
during CPR changed outcomes and suggested its use as an additional diagnostic tool
to identify potentially reversible causes of arrest.25, 26 For 2020, the task force
undertook a different SysRev that looked at the intra-arrest prognostic capabilities
of point-of-care echocardiography. No RCTs were identified, and the 15 relevant observational
studies included in the review were rated as very low-certainty evidence because of
a high risk of bias. The bias related to inconsistent prognostic factor measurement,
outcome measurement, lack of adjustment for other prognostic factors, and confounding
from self-fulfilling prophecy. There was wide variation in classification of anatomy,
type of cardiac motion, and timing of the intervention. The task force cautioned against
the overinterpretation of right ventricular dilatation as a diagnostic indicator of
massive pulmonary embolism because this finding is seen commonly in cardiac arrest
from any cause. After careful consideration of the evidence, the task force suggested
against the use of point-of-care echocardiography for prognostication during CPR.
In the future, identifying a standardized definition of cardiac motion as seen during
point-of-care echocardiography and minimizing other sources of bias will be essential
to obtaining high-certainty evidence.
New Systematic Reviews
Double Sequential Defibrillation
This topic is discussed in more detail in the ALS Hot Topics section earlier in this
publication. The task force’s SysRev identified only observational studies that were
at critical or serious risk of bias because of confounding and 1 recently published
small pilot RCT.
31
Effect on treatment recommendations: In this new recommendation, the ALS Task Force
suggests against the routine use of a double sequential defibrillation strategy to
treat cardiac arrest with a shockable rhythm.
IV Versus IO Drug Delivery
This topic is discussed in more detail in the ALS Hot Topics section earlier in this
publication. A SysRev
32
provided the data supporting a new treatment recommendation.
Effect on treatment recommendations: This is a new treatment recommendation: the ALS
Task Force suggests the IV route for the first attempt for drug delivery during adult
cardiac arrest, but if IV attempts fail or IV access is not feasible, IO access is
suggested.
Point of Care Echocardiography for Prognostication During CPR
The ALS Task Force undertook this new SysRev of the intra-arrest prognostic capabilities
of point-of-care echocardiography. This topic is discussed in more detail in the ALS
Hot Topics section earlier in this publication.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The task force suggested against the use of point-of-care
echocardiography for prognostication during CPR.
Cardiac Arrest Associated With Pulmonary Embolism
The ALS Task Force updated a SysRev previously undertaken in 201525, 26 that sought
to identify whether any specific alteration in the ALS treatment algorithm compared
with standard ALS care would result in better outcomes when treating an adult in cardiac
arrest caused by pulmonary embolism or suspected pulmonary embolism. One additional
observational study was identified that found no difference in outcome with or without
fibrinolysis.
33
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.25, 26
Oxygen Dose After ROSC
Observational studies have shown that after ROSC, there is an association between
both hypoxemia and hyperoxemia and worse outcome. A SysRev conducted to inform the
2020 CoSTR identified 6 RCTs that generally failed to show a benefit of a titrated
(lower concentration of inspired oxygen) approach compared with standard care (higher
concentration of inspired oxygen).
34
A subgroup analysis of patients with suspected hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy in
1 larger RCT documented better survival in patients for whom hyperoxemia was aggressively
avoided.
35
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.25, 26
Ventilation Strategy After ROSC in Adults
Whether targeting a specific Paco
2 after ROSC in adults impacts outcomes was previously reviewed in 2015.25, 26 The
ALS Task Force identified 2 small RCTs and 3 additional observational studies published
since 2015. Unfortunately, differences in the PaCO2 targets used in the arms of the
2 RCTs precluded meta-analysis.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation was modified from
2015 and now states that there is insufficient evidence for or against targeting mild
hypercapnia compared with normocapnia in adults with ROSC after cardiac arrest. The
task force also suggests not routinely targeting hypocapnia in adults with ROSC after
cardiac arrest.
Prophylactic Antibiotics After Cardiac Arrest
This new topic was prioritized by the ALS Task Force on the basis of the recent publication
of a SysRev on the topic.
36
Pneumonia affects approximately 50% of intensive care unit patients after cardiac
arrest. Meta-analyses of both randomized trials and observational studies showed no
overall benefit in the use of prophylactic antibiotics during post–cardiac arrest
care. One RCT documented a reduced incidence of early pneumonia in patients treated
with prophylactic antibiotics but no effect on mortality.
37
Effect on treatment recommendations: A new recommendation was provided that suggested
not using prophylactic antibiotics in patients after ROSC.
Post-Cardiac Arrest Seizure Prophylaxis and Treatment
Clinical convulsions and epileptiform activity in the electroencephalogram (EEG) occur
in 20% to 30% of comatose cardiac arrest survivors. Whether seizure prophylaxis and
treatment in cardiac arrest survivors reduces the incidence of seizures and improves
outcomes is unclear. This SysRev updated a review undertaken in 2015.25, 26
Effect on treatment recommendations: This treatment recommendation has been updated
from 2015. The ALS Task Force suggested that seizures be treated but suggested against
post–cardiac arrest seizure prophylaxis in adults with ROSC. In 2015, there was a
strong recommendation to treat seizures, and the weakening of this treatment recommendation
takes into consideration the absence of direct evidence that seizure treatment improves
critical outcomes in these patients.
Prognostication in Comatose Patients After Resuscitation From Cardiac Arrest
In many healthcare systems, life-sustaining treatment may be limited or withdrawn
when unfavourable neurological outcomes are expected. Thus, timely and reliable prognostication
is an important component of the treatment of patients who remain comatose after cardiac
arrest. The 2015 ILCOR treatment recommendations on this topic distinguished between
studies of prognostication among patients treated with or without hypothermia. The
updated SysRevs and treatment recommendations for 2020 apply regardless of the temperature
management strategy used. Many observational studies on this topic have been published
since 2013, when the previous SysRev on neuroprognostication was undertaken. For 2020,
separate SysRevs were undertaken for the 4 prognostication domains of clinical examination,
neurophysiological tests, biomarkers, and imaging.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendations have been updated
since 2015, the most important being a strong recommendation (albeit based on very
low-certainty evidence) that neuroprognostication always be undertaken with the use
of a multimodal approach because no single test has sufficient specificity to eliminate
false positives.
Clinical Examination for Prognostication
The ALS Task Force suggests using the following components of clinical examination
as part of a multimodal approach to predicting the neurological outcome of adults
who are comatose after cardiac arrest (all based on very low-certainty evidence):
pupillary light reflex, quantitative pupillometry, and bilateral absence of corneal
reflex (all at 72 hours or more after ROSC) and the presence of myoclonus or status
myoclonus within 7 days after ROSC. The task force also suggests recording EEG in
the presence of myoclonic jerks to detect any associated epileptiform activity.
Neurophysiological Tests for Prognostication
The ALS Task Force suggests using the following neurophysiological tests as part of
a multimodal approach to predicting the neurological outcome of adults who are comatose
after cardiac arrest (all based on very low-certainty evidence): bilaterally absent
N20 wave of somatosensory evoked potential, the presence of seizure activity on EEG,
and burst suppression on EEG. The task force suggests not using the absence of EEG
background reactivity alone to predict poor outcome in these patients.
Biomarkers for Prognostication
The ALS Task Force suggests using neuron-specific enolase within 72 hours as part
of a multimodal approach to predicting neurological outcome of adults who are comatose
after cardiac arrest. The task force suggests not using S-100B protein, glial fibrillary
acidic protein, serum tau protein, or neurofilament light chain for predicting poor
neurological outcome of adults who are comatose after cardiac arrest.
Imaging for Prognostication
The ALS Task Force suggests using the following imaging as part of a multimodal approach
to predicting neurological outcome of adults who are comatose after cardiac arrest
(all based on very low-certainty evidence): gray matter to white matter ratio on brain
computed tomography, diffusion-weighted brain MRI, and apparent diffusion coefficient
on brain MRI.
Additional Reviews
The ALS Task Force also evaluated 2 ScopRevs and 15 EvUps. These reviews, per ILCOR
agreement, did not change treatment recommendations, but several resulted in the suggestion
for new SysRevs.
Pediatric Life Support (Basic and Advanced)
Hot Topics
Fluid Administration Rate for Septic Shock and Management of Septic Shock
Although substantial progress has been made in reducing mortality and morbidity from
septic shock in infants and children, recommendations for management are often based
on a consensus of experts because available evidence is limited. A very detailed 2020
EvUp identified several relevant studies, and the PLS Task Force agreed that a SysRev
is needed in the near future.
In early February 2020, as the PLS Task Force was finalizing the CoSTR publication,
the Society of Critical Care Medicine published their “Surviving Sepsis Campaign International
Guidelines for the Management of Septic Shock and Sepsis-Associated Organ Dysfunction
in Children.”
38
The task force cited recommendations from these guidelines in several of the septic
shock topics in the PLS publication in this supplement and also agreed to request
a SysRev about the general management of septic shock in infants and children.
Adrenaline/Epinephrine Initial Dose and Dose Intervals for Cardiac Arrest
Although epinephrine has been part of pediatric resuscitation for more than 50 years,
there is little pediatric data about its effectiveness or the optimal initial dose
or dose interval during resuscitation. The epinephrine SysRev identified evidence
associating benefit with shorter time to initial epinephrine administration and improved
outcomes in children with nonshockable rhythms and OHCA,39, 40, 41 and a new treatment
recommendation reflected this evidence. However, there remains insufficient evidence
about the effect of time to initial epinephrine dose for OHCA with shockable rhythms.
The 2 observational studies evaluating epinephrine dose intervals during IHCA yielded
contradictory results, so evidence remains insufficient about the optimal dose interval
for pediatric IHCA.42, 43 More data, ideally in the form of RCTs, is needed on this
important topic.
Management of Traumatic Shock in Infants and Children
The 2020 CoSTR for PLS addresses the topic of graded volume resuscitation for infants
and children with traumatic haemorrhagic shock as well as management of the child
with cardiac arrest after trauma. The ScopRev on graded volume resuscitation identified
a single observational study in the prehospital setting assessing the volume of fluid
given to children with traumatic injuries,
44
with an additional 4 studies comparing total crystalloid volume given over 24 hours45,
46, 47, 48 and 1 study evaluating the volume of crystalloids given to children who
needed transfusion.
49
The task force agreed that the evidence was sufficient to consider a SysRev in the
near future.
The task force discussions included the issue of the scope of the ILCOR PLS Task Force
mandate and whether trauma should be included among topics that this task force evaluates,
given that other organizations are addressing the topic. However, because trauma remains
a leading cause of infant and child deaths worldwide, the task force agreed to continue
to evaluate evidence addressing the management of seriously injured infants and children
but agreed that traumatic cardiopulmonary arrest will, after 2020, remain in the purview
of organizations such as the American College of Surgeons (eg, via the Advanced Trauma
Life Support Course
50
).
Ventilation Rate With Advanced Airway During CPR
In 2010, the PLS Task Force identified insufficient pediatric evidence to identify
any optimal minute ventilation during CPR with an advanced airway, and the treatment
recommendations noted that it would be reasonable to provide a minute ventilation
less-than-normal for age because cardiac output and pulmonary blood flow are much
lower than normal during CPR.51, 52 This left the decision about ventilation rate
up to individual council guidelines. For simplicity, some councils recommended the
same ventilation rate used for adults. The 2020 EvUp search identified 1 small multicentre
study in children with advanced airways during CPR, reporting an association between
a ventilation rate of 30/min or greater for infants and 25/min or greater for children
and improved outcomes.
53
These results raised the question of the need for a faster ventilation rate during
CPR in children compared with adults. The task force agreed that more data are needed
(eg, larger observational studies, RCTs) and agreed to request a SysRev when additional
studies are published.
Use of Heamodynamic Monitoring When Available During CPR
CPR quality is essential to good resuscitation outcomes. Monitoring devices and systems
available in critical care may provide valuable feedback and data about CPR quality.
The task force requested a ScopRev to determine the evidence available to support
the use of intra-arterial pressure monitoring if it is already in place during CPR.
A single observational study reported an association between a mean diastolic (relaxation)
blood pressure of 25 mmHg or higher in infants and 30 mmHg or higher in children and
survival.
54
Although the task force agreed that identification of a threshold diastolic blood
pressure associated with survival in children could be very helpful to guide resuscitation
efforts, at this time, there is insufficient evidence to identify any such threshold.
New Systematic Reviews
Sequence of Compression and Ventilation
In 2015, there was inadequate evidence to support a PLS Task Force recommendation
about the sequence of compressions and ventilation in infants and children.
55a,55b
In 2020, the PLS Task Force combined efforts with the BLS Task Force to perform a
SysRev to identify evidence supporting a CPR sequence beginning with either compressions
first or ventilation first. The search identified no studies in children. As a result,
there is no change in the 2015 PLS treatment recommendation. To review the BLS summary,
see “Starting CPR: Compressions-Airway-Breaths Versus Airway-Breaths-Compressions”
(BLS 661: SysRev) in the 2020 CoSTR for BLS in this supplement.
Effect on treatment recommendation: no change from 2015; we are unable to make a recommendation.
55a,55b
IO Versus IV Route of Drug Administration
The PLS Task Force joined with the NLS and ALS Task Forces in a SysRev to identify
the evidence of superiority of either IO or IV routes of drug administration during
CPR.
32
The search strategy included newborns, infants, children, and adults. Although evidence
was identified in newborns and adults, the search yielded no studies that included
infants (beyond newborns) or children. To review the neonatal evidence identified
by the SysRev, see “Intraosseous Versus Umbilical Vein for Emergency Access” (NLS
616: SysRev) in the 2020 CoSTR for NLS in this supplement.
Effect on treatment recommendation: No change from 2010.51, 52
Adrenaline/Epinephrine Time of Initial Dose and Dose Interval During CPR
The SysRev identified only observational (registry) data (including 1 large study
reporting data from 26 755 children,
39
suggesting benefit associated with earlier rather than later initial epinephrine administration,
especially for children with OHCA and nonshockable rhythms.39, 40, 41 Because the
2 registry studies of epinephrine dose intervals in children with IHCA provided directly
contradictory evidence,42, 43 the task force concluded that there was insufficient
evidence to make a new recommendation about epinephrine dose interval.
Effect on treatment recommendations: New recommendations were provided suggesting
that the initial dose of epinephrine be given as soon as possible for children with
OHCA and nonshockable rhythm, but there was insufficient evidence to make a recommendation
for initial epinephrine dose timing for OHCA with shockable rhythms and insufficient
evidence to identify an optimal epinephrine dose interval.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Targets in Pediatric Patients With ROSC
The PLS Task Force joined with the ALS Task Force to request a SysRev to identify
evidence about optimal targets for Pao
2 and Paco
2 after ROSC.
56a,56b
The PLS Task Force agreed to evaluate only the pediatric evidence. The search identified
only observational studies about oxygen targets.57, 58, 59 The SysRev also identified
2 observational studies that suggested potential harm (increased mortality) associated
with both hypercapnia and hypocapnia (compared with normocapnia) after ROSC.59, 60
Effect on treatment recommendations: The recommendations were modified from those
published in 201555 targeting a Pao
2 appropriate for the child’s condition or normoxemia, adding that it might be reasonable
to target an oxygen saturation of 94% to 99%. The treatment recommendations for targeting
Paco
2 continue to suggest targeting normocapnia but now include examples of clinical problems
where normocapnia would not be desirable.
Additional Reviews
In addition to the SysRevs, the PLS Task Force evaluated 10 ScopRevs and 37 EvUps.
These reviews, per ILCOR agreement, did not change treatment recommendations, but
several resulted in the suggestion for new SysRevs. All are available in Appendixes
B and C of the PLS CoSTR.
Neonatal Life Support
Hot Topics
Tracheal Intubation and Suction of Nonvigorous Meconium-Stained Newborns
The 2015 recommendation about tracheal intubation and suctioning was based on 1 RCT
and observational studies and GRADE reassessment of previously quoted evidence. In
2020, the NLS Task Force requested a SysRev to include studies published after 2015
to determine if any modification of the 2015 treatment recommendation was needed.
None of the studies identified by the new SysRev
61
showed any benefit associated with the use of immediate laryngoscopy with or without
suctioning for nonvigorous newborns delivered through meconium-stained amniotic fluid.
As a result, the task force agreed to increase the certainty of the treatment recommendations
against routine immediate direct laryngoscopy after delivery with or without suctioning
for nonvigorous newborns delivered through meconium-stained amniotic fluid.
Adrenaline/Epinephrine for Neonatal Resuscitation
Before 2020, the NLS Task Force never performed a SysRev on the use, dose, and dose
interval of epinephrine in newborn resuscitation. The 2020 SysRev identified only
2 small studies62, 63 including 97 infants from the same newborn intensive care unit
(although in different epochs). The task force agreed that the 2010 treatment recommendations
remain valid, with minor editorial revisions.
Initial Oxygen Concentration for Preterm Infants at Birth
During stabilization of the preterm newborn in the delivery room, medical practitioners
must prevent or rapidly treat hypoxia while limiting exposure to excess oxygen that
may cause complications. In 2019, the NLS Task Force requested a new SysRev after
the publication of several relevant studies about the initial oxygen concentration
to use in preterm newborn resuscitation.
64
In that review, pooled data from 2 observational studies of 1225 newborns showed an
association between initiating resuscitation with lower oxygen concentration and significant
benefit in reduction of long-term mortality for all preterm newborns 28 weeks of gestational
age or less.65, 66 Although these results and associated treatment recommendations
were published in the 2019 CoSTR18, 19 and not reevaluated in this 2020 CoSTR, the
NLS Task Force agreed that initial oxygen concentration to use for resuscitation of
the preterm newborn remains an important topic.
Impact of Duration of Intensive Resuscitation
Neonatal clinicians face a critical decision when intensive resuscitative efforts
fail to result in ROSC. They must decide when to redirect care of the infant from
resuscitation to providing comfort and contact with the parents. The timing of this
decision is crucial—if made too early, it could deny the opportunity for the infant
to survive with good neurodevelopmental outcome, but if made too late, it could result
in very limited chance for survival without severe neurodevelopmental impairment.
The NLS Task Force sought a SysRev to identify published evidence of any resuscitation
exposure or duration that is associated with outcomes. The task force carefully weighed
the very limited data and acknowledged that quality of resuscitative efforts will
affect any study of resuscitation duration and outcomes. The new treatment recommendations
suggest that discussion of discontinuing resuscitative efforts with the clinical team
and the family might be appropriate after approximately 20 minutes after birth (see
more information below).
New Systematic Reviews
Tracheal Intubation and Suction of Nonvigorous, Meconium-Stained Newborns
As previously noted, the evidence identified by the 2020 SysRev
61
added additional evidence of lack of benefit to immediate tracheal suctioning of nonvigorous
newborns born through meconium-stained amniotic fluid.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The NLS Task Force strengthened the wording of
the certainty of the evidence for the treatment recommendation, suggesting against
routine immediate direct laryngoscopy after delivery of nonvigorous infants delivered
through meconium-stained amniotic fluid. The recommendations acknowledged that meconium-stained
amniotic fluid remains a risk factor for advanced resuscitation in the delivery room
and noted that rarely an infant may require intubation and tracheal suctioning to
relieve airway obstruction.
Sustained Inflation
If the newborn does not breathe spontaneously, providers must establish a functional
residual capacity to replace lung fluid with air. However, published evidence has
not identified the optimum method to accomplish this. In 2015, the NLS Task Force
suggested against the routine use of sustained inflation67, 68, 69; in 2020, the task
force sought a new SysRev to identify and analyse the results of several clinical
trials published after 2015. The new SysRev
70
identified 10 RCTs enrolling 1502 preterm newborns.71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78,
79, 80 Although the studies demonstrated no benefit or harm from initiating positive
pressure ventilation with sustained inflation(s) in preterm infants, in the subset
of very preterm infants (less than 28 + 0 weeks), 5 RCTs found potential harm from
the use of sustained inflation(s).71, 72, 75, 76
,
79
Effect on treatment recommendations: The task force strengthened the recommendation
suggesting against the routine use of sustained inflation(s) of more than 5 seconds
for preterm newborns. There is no evidence to support a recommendation about the use
of any specific duration for initial inflations for term or late-preterm infants.
Adrenaline/Epinephrine for Neonatal Resuscitation
The 2019 SysRev about the effects of epinephrine dose and dose intervals
81
represents the first attempt to identify and analyse the evidence on this topic. Given
the very limited evidence identified, the task force agreed that the 2010 treatment
recommendations remained valid, suggesting epinephrine administration for a persistent
heart rate of less than 60/min despite optimal ventilation and chest compressions.67,
68, 82, 83
Effect on treatment recommendations: Only minor editorial changes were made to the
2010 recommendations.
IO Versus Umbilical Vein for Emergency Access
Although small case series and case reports suggest that fluids and medications can
be delivered by the IO route during newborn resuscitation,84, 85 complications have
also been reported.84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 In 2019, the NLS Task Force joined the ALS
Task Force and the PLS Task Force to complete a joint SysRev with meta-analysis.
32
The SysRev identified no published evidence addressing any of the preidentified outcomes
in newborns.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The task force strengthened the recommendation
for use of the umbilical venous route for fluid and drug administration during resuscitation
in the delivery room but did allow use of the IO route if umbilical venous access
is not feasible.
Impact of Duration of Intensive Resuscitation
During resuscitation of the newborn, clinicians and parents often ask how long resuscitative
efforts can continue and still result in potential survival of the infant with good
neurological outcome. In 2019, the NLS Task Force requested a SysRev to identify any
evidence of an incremental time of resuscitation exposure from birth that was associated
with very poor likelihood of survival. This SysRev identified 15 outcome studies of
only 470 newborns.
91
The task force agreed that the limited number of infants in the studies and the heterogeneity
of the studies provided very low-certainty evidence on which to base new 2020 treatment
recommendations.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The task force noted that although there is no
evidence that a specific duration of resuscitation consistently predicts mortality
or moderate-to-severe neurodevelopmental impairment, the failure to achieve ROSC despite
10 to 20 minutes of intensive resuscitation is associated with high risk of mortality
as well as severe neurodevelopmental impairment among survivors. The task force agreed
that a reasonable time frame to suggest discussion of discontinuing resuscitative
efforts is around 20 minutes after birth.
Additional Reviews
In addition to the SysRevs, the NLS Task Force performed 3 ScopRevs and 12 EvUps.
All reviews are highlighted in the NLS publication, including appendixes in this supplement.
Education, Implementation, and Teams
Hot Topics
EMS Experience and Exposure
Resuscitation knowledge and skills are likely to degrade with time if not refreshed
with regular use or training; however, a SysRev published in 2016
92a,92b
found very little evidence to support this concept. The EIT Task Force undertook a
SysRev that identified 6 observational studies of very low-certainty evidence. Comparisons
were divided into exposure to resuscitation by the team or individual, and years of
career experience of individuals within the team. A critical risk of bias and a high
degree of heterogeneity precluded meta-analyses. The task force made a weak recommendation
that EMS systems should monitor exposure to resuscitation by clinical personnel and,
where possible, implement strategies to address low exposure. This could include the
rotation of EMS personnel through higher OHCA volume areas and the use of team simulation.
Community Initiatives to Promote BLS Implementation
This topic was last reviewed for the 2010 CoSTR,93, 94 although the role of communities
in providing and promoting bystander CPR, a related topic, was reviewed for the 2015
CoSTR.95, 96 The EIT Task Force decided to search for evidence supporting the benefit
of community initiatives (interventions aimed at increasing the engagement of the
community in providing BLS with early defibrillation) in promoting BLS implementation.
Studies evaluating the role of healthcare professionals or first responders with any
duty to respond were excluded as were several specific interventions that are reviewed
elsewhere in the 2020 CoSTR. Given the high heterogeneity among studies, a ScopRev
was undertaken. Although only 40% of the 17 identified studies reported an increase
in survival to hospital discharge, almost all showed a benefit with implementation
of community initiatives, and this was greater in those evaluating bundled interventions.
The task force suggests that a SysRev be undertaken, but in the meantime, the treatment
recommendation from 2015 remains unchanged: “We recommend implementation of resuscitation
guidelines within organizations that provide care for patients in cardiac arrest in
any setting (strong recommendation, very low-quality evidence).”95, 96
Opioid Overdose First Aid Education
The opioid overdose crisis is recognized as a major challenge, particularly in the
United States. In 2015, the ALS Task Force made a strong recommendation for the use
of naloxone for individuals in cardiac arrest caused by opioid toxicity.25, 26 At
that time, the BLS Task Force made a weak recommendation to offer opioid overdose
response education, with or without naloxone distribution, to persons at risk for
opioid overdose.
12a,12b
The EIT Taskforce undertook a ScopRev of current opioid overdose response education
programs to determine whether a new SysRev is required. Of 59 studies identified,
only 8 used a comparator group and only 1 was a randomized controlled trial. Inconsistent
reporting of educational interventions made it difficult to compare studies, and the
EIT Task Force suggests that the use of the Guideline for Reporting Evidence-Based
Practice Educational Interventions and Teaching checklist would improve standardization.
97
Another limitation in the evidence identified is that first aid and survival outcomes
were generally self-reported by individuals refilling naloxone prescriptions and,
therefore, are of questionable validity. The EIT Task Force found no evidence to change
the current weak recommendation: “We suggest offering opioid overdose response education,
with or without naloxone distribution, to persons at risk for opioid overdose in any
setting.”
12a,12b
Willingness to Perform Bystander CPR
This topic was last reviewed by ILCOR in 2010.93, 94 Given the low incidence of bystander
provision of CPR and use of AEDs, the EIT Task Force chose to undertake a ScopRev
comparing factors that increase or decrease the willingness of bystanders to perform
CPR for OHCA. The facilitators and barriers to performing CPR were categorized into
personal factors, CPR knowledge, and procedural issues.
98
The 18 observational studies that were identified had significant heterogeneity among
study populations and methodologies, definitions of factors associated with willingness
to provide CPR, and outcomes reported. The task force agreed that there were insufficient
data to warrant a SysRev. Although the treatment recommendation remains unchanged
from 2010,93, 94 the EIT Task Force proposed that BLS training should include information
to overcome potential barriers to CPR faced by lay rescuers. When providing CPR instructions,
EMS dispatchers should recognize the emotional barriers and physical factors that
may make lay rescuers reluctant to perform CPR, and it will be important for dispatchers
to support bystanders in starting and continuing CPR.
Out-of-Hospital CPR Training in Low-Resource Settings
To date, treatment recommendations with respect to CPR training have generally been
made from the perspective of a well-resourced environment; these recommendations may
not be applicable to lower-resource settings (per the World Bank definition by gross
national income per capita). The EIT Task Force undertook a ScopRev to raise awareness
of gaps in emergency care services around the world, to identify gaps in the literature,
and to suggest future research priorities. Clinical outcomes were sought from studies
of prehospital resuscitation among adults and children in low-resource settings. Of
the 24 studies identified, none came from low-income countries, 4 came from lower-middle-income
countries, and all others were from upper-middle-income economies. Longer-term outcomes,
reported in 15 of the studies, were generally worse in the lower-middle-income countries.
The EIT Task Force encourages organizations responsible for emergency care in low-resource
environments to collect data and document outcomes, ideally in the form of registries
that comply with the Utstein-style reporting template.
99
In the future, experts and clinicians from low-resource environments should be involved
in global initiatives such as ILCOR so that its recommendations can be made acceptable
and applicable locally. Whether prehospital resuscitation is feasible, cost-effective,
or even ethically justifiable in these regions has been questioned recently. Given
the limited resources in low-income countries, the feasibility of full ALS and postresuscitation
care is debatable. The priorities for healthcare systems should be determined locally.
In the meantime, the weak recommendation made in 2015 stands: “We suggest that alternative
instructional strategies would be reasonable for BLS or ALS teaching in low-income
countries.”95, 96
New Systematic Reviews
EMS Experience and Exposure
This topic is discussed in more detail in the EIT Hot Topics section earlier in this
publication. The EIT Task Force’s SysRev identified only 6 observational studies,
and because of the critical risk of bias and a high degree of heterogeneity, meta-analyses
were not performed.92a
Effect on treatment recommendations: With this new treatment recommendation, the task
force suggests that EMS systems monitor their clinical personnel’s exposure to resuscitation
and, where possible, implement strategies to address low exposure.
Patient Outcomes as a Result of a Member of the Resuscitation Team Attending an ALS
Course
Whether resuscitation team member completion of an advanced cardiac life support course
improves patient outcomes after cardiac arrest has long been debatable, not least
because of the costs of these courses to participants and healthcare organizations.
This EIT Task Force review is an adolopment of an existing SysRev and meta-analysis
of 8 observational studies.
100
Although this was deemed very low-certainty evidence, it consistently favours advanced
cardiac life support training.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The EIT Task Force made a weak recommendation
for the provision of accredited adult advanced cardiac life support training for healthcare
professionals.
Spaced Learning
A recent AHA scientific statement on education science describes spaced or distributed
practice as the separation of training into several discrete sessions over a prolonged
period with measurable intervals between training sessions (typically weeks to months).
101
The EIT Task Force undertook a SysRev of learners taking resuscitation courses and
compared educational and clinical outcomes among those undergoing spaced learning
with those undergoing massed learning (ie, training provided at a single time point).
In all 17 of the studies identified, practical skills were assessed using manikins,
so this was deemed only very low-certainty evidence to support spaced learning in
resuscitation education.
Effect on treatment recommendations: In 2010, there was insufficient evidence to recommend
any specific training intervention, compared with traditional lecture/practice sessions,
to learning, retention, and use of ALS skills.93, 94 However, for 2020, the EIT Task
Force suggests that spaced learning may be used instead of massed learning.
Opioid Overdose First Aid Education
This topic is discussed in more detail in the EIT Hot Topics section above. The EIT
Task Force undertook a ScopRev of studies that compared education about response or
care of an individual by first aid providers in an opioid overdose emergency with
response by those with any other or no specialized education. Among the 8 identified
studies with a comparator group, the task force found no evidence to change the current
treatment recommendation.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendation is unchanged from
2015.
12a,12b
Prehospital Termination of Resuscitation Rules
A recent SysRev identified 32 studies that addressed the use of termination of resuscitation
rules that predict in-hospital outcomes among adults and children who do not achieve
ROSC out-of-hospital.
102
The majority of these describe either the derivation and internal validation of individual
termination of resuscitation rules or the external validation of previously published
termination of resuscitation rules. Although the termination of resuscitation is commonly
undertaken in many EMS systems, the identification of futile cases is challenging.
The EIT Task Force advocates the adoption of termination of resuscitation guidelines
that take into account the patient’s prior wishes and/or expectations, consideration
of patient preexisting comorbidities, and quality of life both before and after the
cardiac arrest. However, a termination of resuscitation rule should not be the sole
determinant of when to discontinue resuscitation. Global variation in cultural and
legal issues must also be considered.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The 2010 CoSTR recommended the use of validated
termination of resuscitation rules in adults.93, 94 For 2020, the EIT Task Force softened
this to a conditional recommendation, taking into consideration the social acceptability
of excluding potential survivors from in-hospital treatment and the very limited clinical
validation of such rules.
In-Hospital Termination of Resuscitation
Knowing when to stop a resuscitation attempt in-hospital is challenging. The EIT Task
Force undertook a SysRev to determine whether the use of any clinical decision rule
would predict a poor outcome with sufficient certainty to enable termination of the
resuscitation attempt. Three studies used unwitnessed arrest, nonshockable rhythm,
and 10 minutes of CPR without ROSC (the 3 variables of the so-called UN10 rule) to
predict death before hospital discharge. These studies were based on historical cohorts
and carry substantial risk of self-fulfilling prophecy bias. No single clinical factor
or decision rule has been identified as sufficient to terminate resuscitation.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The EIT Task Force made a strong recommendation
(based on very low-certainty evidence) against the use of the UN10 rule as a sole
strategy to terminate in-hospital resuscitation. Clinicians should rely on clinical
examination, their experience, and the patient’s condition and wishes to inform their
decision to terminate resuscitative efforts.
Additional Reviews
The EIT Task Force also evaluated 7 EvUps. The ScopRevs and EvUps, per ILCOR agreement,
did not change treatment recommendations, but several resulted in the suggestion for
new SysRevs.
First Aid
Hot Topics
Control of Life-Threatening External Bleeding
Trauma remains the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide, and uncontrolled
bleeding is the primary cause of death in up to 35% of patients who die from trauma.103,
104, 105 The “Stop the Bleed” White House initiative
106
aims to bring battleground experience to the civilian world, with dissemination of
education and equipment to recognize and control life-threatening bleeding. The combined
SysRev for control of life-threatening bleeding used a common search strategy to evaluate
evidence about direct manual pressure, tourniquets, haemostatic dressings, and haemostatic
techniques.
107
The First Aid Task Force developed new recommendations about the use of tourniquets
for life-threatening external extremity bleeding amenable to the use of a tourniquet.
Additional recommendations include the use of direct manual pressure, with or without
a haemostatic dressing, for life-threatening external bleeding not amenable to the
use of a tourniquet.
Cooling of Heatstroke and Exertional Hyperthermia
Cooling for heatstroke and exertional hyperthermia was prioritized in light of the
rising global risk of heat waves coupled with athletic events staged under these challenging
conditions. The First Aid Task Force developed new treatment recommendations based
on evidence suggesting that water immersion (between 1 °C and 26 °C, or between 33.8 °F
and 78.8 °F) of the torso or whole body lowered the core body temperature faster than
other active and passive cooling modalities.
Stroke Recognition
A new SysRev evaluated the available tools to assist the first aid provider in identifying
potential stroke.
108
All tools were applied by trained EMS providers or nurses in the prehospital setting,
so the evidence was only indirect when applied to the first aid setting; the ability
of first aid providers to use the tools correctly remains an important question to
be answered. The task force simplified previous recommendations109, 110 and continued
to suggest that first aid providers use stroke assessment tools, noting an increased
specificity (without loss of sensitivity) in tools that include measurement of blood
glucose.
Dental Avulsion
When an injury causes tooth avulsion (ie, the tooth is pulled out with the root),
the tooth must be stored in an appropriate medium to preserve viability until the
tooth can be reimplanted. The First Aid Task Force sought a 2020 SysRev
111
to identify optimal media for temporary tooth storage, comparing the effects of many
different media on periodontal ligament cell viability (surrogate for viability of
the tooth for reimplantation). Although milk remains an effective medium, the task
force concluded that other media as well as the use of clear cling film (ie, plastic
wrap) were more effective in preserving viability.
New Systematic Reviews
Methods of Glucose Administration
The 2020 SysRev focused on methods and forms of glucose administration.
112
The review identified very limited evidence, and 2 of the 4 studies identified enrolled
healthy volunteers (very indirect evidence).
Effect on treatment recommendations: The task force suggested oral swallowed sugar
in preference to buccal administration of sugar. In a select group of children, sublingual
administration of a wet paste of sugar improved resolution of hypoglycemia compared
with oral swallowed glucose.
Heatstroke Cooling
The 2020 SysRev
113
focused on the potential for increased survival and reduced morbidity associated with
heatstroke with the use of rapid core cooling. The task force evaluated limited evidence
of 12 different active or passive cooling techniques in healthy adults with exertional
hyperthermia (ie, indirect evidence about cooling for heatstroke). Evidence about
cooling during heatstroke was based on observational studies and case series. Whole-body
(neck-down) immersion in water with temperatures of 1 °C to 26 °C, or 33.8 °F to 78.8 °F
(eg, in a small tub) produced the most rapid rate of cooling and was faster than other
active-cooling techniques.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The new First Aid Task Force recommendation for
adults with exertional hyperthermia or exertional heatstroke is immediate active cooling
using whole-body (ie, neck-down) water immersion (1–26 °C, or 33.8–78.8 °F) until
the core body temperature is less than 39 °C (102.2 °F). If water immersion is not
possible, the task force recommends any other active-cooling methods.
Stroke Recognition
Because the prompt recognition of stroke is critical for effective treatment,
114
the First Aid Task Force requested a SysRev of stroke recognition tools appropriate
for use in the first aid setting.
108
As noted previously, in all identified studies, the stroke scales or scoring tools
were applied by trained EMS providers or nurses. As in the 2015 CoSTR, the 2020 First
Aid Task Force recommended the use of stroke assessment scales or tools, based on
the ability to perform point-of-care glucose measurement.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The treatment recommendations are essentially
unchanged from 2015, although the specific stroke assessment tools cited vary slightly
from those listed in 2015.109, 110
Supplementary Oxygen in Acute Stroke
The 2020 SysRev focused exclusively on oxygen use for those with suspected stroke,
rather than on general first aid oxygen use.
115
With few exceptions,
116
the studies reviewed reported no benefit associated with oxygen use (compared with
room air) in those with suspected stroke, and 1 study
117
reported a higher rate of respiratory complications associated with oxygen use.
Effect on treatment recommendations: In a new recommendation focusing on the use of
oxygen for those with suspected stroke, the task force suggested against the routine
use of oxygen for those with suspected stroke.
First Aid Administration of Aspirin for Chest Pain: Early Compared With Late
The 2020 SysRev
118
evaluated the evidence about effects of early (prehospital or within 2 hours of symptom
onset) compared with later, often in-hospital aspirin administration to anyone with
nontraumatic chest pain. Two observational studies found an association of increased
survival at 7 and 30 days119, 120 and 1 year
119
with early aspirin administration to those later diagnosed with acute myocardial infarction.
However, increased survival at 35 days was not noted in a study administering enteric-coated
aspirin.
121
Effect on treatment recommendations: Early administration of aspirin is again suggested.
However, the recommendation is no longer restricted to those with chest pain and suspected
myocardial infarction but applies to all adults with nontraumatic chest pain.
Control of Life-Threatening Bleeding
A 2020 combined SysRev enabled the First Aid Task Force to evaluate the evidence for
several methods to control life-threatening external bleeding, including direct pressure,
pressure dressings, pressure points, tourniquets, haemostatic dressings, and haemostatic
devices.
107
As noted previously, evidence from both military and civilian environments was identified.
Key outcomes included mortality as well as time to cessation of bleeding. Direct manual
pressure was demonstrated to be beneficial compared with compression devices, pressure
dressings or bandages, or pressure points for severe life-threatening external bleeding.
Tourniquet use was associated with a higher rate of bleeding cessation compared with
direct pressure in military cohort studies122, 123 and lower all-cause mortality in
1 large prehospital cohort study.
124
In-hospital RCTs performed in patients after endovascular procedures125, 126, 127,
128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137 demonstrated more rapid bleeding
cessation with the use of haemostatic dressings plus direct manual pressure compared
with direct manual pressure alone. Many patients in these studies also received anticoagulant
medications.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The 2020 treatment recommendations now suggest
the use of tourniquets for life-threatening external extremity bleeding that is amenable
to the use of a tourniquet; direct pressure, with or without a haemostatic dressing
is recommended for life-threatening external bleeding that is not amenable to tourniquet
use.
Compression Wrap for Closed Extremity Joint Injury
First aid providers are often called to assist in the treatment of closed extremity
joint injuries. The task force requested a SysRev to identify and analyse the evidence
about treatment of these injuries.
138
The evidence, consisting of only in-hospital RCTs, found that compression wraps did
not reduce pain139, 140 or swelling139, 141, 142 or improve range of motion.139, 140,
141, 143, 144 One small randomized trial found that a compression wrap did reduce
recovery time and shorten time to return to sports.
141
The included studies may suffer from confounding related to the use of other standard
therapy for acute joint injuries.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The recommendation is unchanged from 2010, when
there was insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the application of a pressure
bandage for an acute closed extremity joint injury.
145
Dental Avulsion
The First Aid Task Force requested a 2020 SysRev of media used to store an avulsed
tooth until it can be reimplanted.
111
Many RCTs found benefit from immersion of the tooth in Hanks’ Balanced Salt Solution146,
147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157 as well as in oral rehydration
salt solutions154, 155 or from wrapping the tooth in cling film (ie, plastic wrap)
158
as compared with immersion in milk. However, milk was better than many other media
for storing a tooth until reimplantation.
Effect on treatment recommendations: The task force-recommended list of media and
methods for storing an avulsed tooth is expanded and includes cling film (ie, plastic
wrap); 2 solutions (coconut water and egg white) that were previously recommended
are no longer included in the recommendations.
Additional Reviews
The First Aid Task Force also evaluated 8 ScopRevs and 2 EvUps.
Next Steps
The ILCOR councils, task forces, and members are committed to the process of continuous
evidence evaluation. Through the ScopRevs and EvUps identified in this 2020 document,
the task forces have identified many topics that require new SysRevs. The task forces
will prioritize the next set of reviews, adding topics that result from the emerging
evidence. The ILCOR leadership and task forces have set ambitious goals designed to
analyse published studies and develop evidence-based treatment recommendations in
a continuous, annual fashion to assist resuscitation councils in the creation and
revision of their guidelines for CPR, ECC, education, and first aid.