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      Glucocorticoids and 11β-HSD1 are major regulators of intramyocellular protein metabolism

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          Abstract

          The adverse metabolic effects of prescribed and endogenous glucocorticoid excess, ‘Cushing’s syndrome’, create a significant health burden. While skeletal muscle atrophy and resultant myopathy is a clinical feature, the molecular mechanisms underpinning these changes are not fully defined. We have characterized the impact of glucocorticoids upon key metabolic pathways and processes regulating muscle size and mass including: protein synthesis, protein degradation, and myoblast proliferation in both murine C2C12 and human primary myotube cultures. Furthermore, we have investigated the role of pre-receptor modulation of glucocorticoid availability by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) in these processes. Corticosterone (CORT) decreased myotube area, decreased protein synthesis, and increased protein degradation in murine myotubes. This was supported by decreased mRNA expression of insulin-like growth factor (IGF1), decreased activating phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), decreased phosphorylation of 4E binding protein 1 (4E-BP1), and increased mRNA expression of key atrophy markers including: atrogin-1, forkhead box O3a (FOXO3a), myostatin ( MSTN), and muscle-ring finger protein-1 (MuRF1). These findings were endorsed in human primary myotubes, where cortisol also decreased protein synthesis and increased protein degradation. The effects of 11-dehydrocorticosterone (11DHC) (in murine myotubes) and cortisone (in human myotubes) on protein metabolism were indistinguishable from that of CORT/cortisol treatments. Selective 11β-HSD1 inhibition blocked the decrease in protein synthesis, increase in protein degradation, and reduction in myotube area induced by 11DHC/cortisone. Furthermore, CORT/cortisol, but not 11DHC/cortisone, decreased murine and human myoblast proliferative capacity. Glucocorticoids are potent regulators of skeletal muscle protein homeostasis and myoblast proliferation. Our data underscores the potential use of selective 11β-HSD1 inhibitors to ameliorate muscle-wasting effects associated with glucocorticoid excess.

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          Regulation of 4E-BP1 phosphorylation: a novel two-step mechanism.

          The multisubunit eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIF) 4F recruits 40S ribosomal subunits to the 5' end of mRNA. The eIF4F subunit eIF4E interacts directly with the mRNA 5' cap structure. Assembly of the eIF4F complex is inhibited by a family of repressor polypeptides, the eIF4E-binding proteins (4E-BPs). Binding of the 4E-BPs to eIF4E is regulated by phosphorylation: Hypophosphorylated 4E-BP isoforms interact strongly with eIF4E, whereas hyperphosphorylated isoforms do not. 4E-BP1 is hypophosphorylated in quiescent cells, but is hyperphosphorylated on multiple sites following exposure to a variety of extracellular stimuli. The PI3-kinase/Akt pathway and the kinase FRAP/mTOR signal to 4E-BP1. FRAP/mTOR has been reported to phosphorylate 4E-BP1 directly in vitro. However, it is not known if FRAP/mTOR is responsible for the phosphorylation of all 4E-BP1 sites, nor which sites must be phosphorylated to release 4E-BP1 from eIF4E. To address these questions, a recombinant FRAP/mTOR protein and a FRAP/mTOR immunoprecipitate were utilized in in vitro kinase assays to phosphorylate 4E-BP1. Phosphopeptide mapping of the in vitro-labeled protein yielded two 4E-BP1 phosphopeptides that comigrated with phosphopeptides produced in vivo. Mass spectrometry analysis indicated that these peptides contain phosphorylated Thr-37 and Thr-46. Thr-37 and Thr-46 are efficiently phosphorylated in vitro by FRAP/mTOR when 4E-BP1 is bound to eIF4E. However, phosphorylation at these sites was not associated with a loss of eIF4E binding. Phosphorylated Thr-37 and Thr-46 are detected in all phosphorylated in vivo 4E-BP1 isoforms, including those that interact with eIF4E. Finally, mutational analysis demonstrated that phosphorylation of Thr-37/Thr-46 is required for subsequent phosphorylation of several carboxy-terminal serum-sensitive sites. Taken together, our results suggest that 4E-BP1 phosphorylation by FRAP/mTOR on Thr-37 and Thr-46 is a priming event for subsequent phosphorylation of the carboxy-terminal serum-sensitive sites.
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            Taking glucocorticoids by prescription is associated with subsequent cardiovascular disease.

            Glucocorticoids have adverse systemic effects, including obesity, hypertension, and hyperglycemia, that may predispose to cardiovascular disease. The effect of glucocorticoid use on cardiovascular disease has not been quantified. To test the hypothesis that users of exogenous glucocorticoids have an increased risk for cardiovascular disease. A cohort study using a record linkage database. Tayside, Scotland, United Kingdom. 68,781 glucocorticoid users and 82,202 nonusers without previous hospitalization for cardiovascular disease who were studied between 1993 and 1996. The average daily dose of glucocorticoid exposure during follow-up was categorized as low (inhaled, nasal, and topical only), medium (oral, rectal, or parenteral or =7.5 mg of prednisolone equivalent). Poisson regression model, sensitivity analysis, and propensity score methods were used to investigate the association between glucocorticoid exposure and cardiovascular outcome. 4383 cardiovascular events occurred in 257,487 person-years of follow-up for a rate of 17.0 (95% CI, 16.5 to 17.5) per 1000 person-years in the comparator group, and 5068 events occurred in 212,287 person-years for a rate of 23.9 (CI, 23.2 to 24.5) per 1000 person-years in the group exposed to glucocorticoids (22.1, 27.2, and 76.5 in low, medium, and high groups, respectively). The absolute risk difference was 6.9 (CI, 6.0 to 7.7) per 1000 person-years (5.1, 10.1, and 59.4, respectively). After adjustment for known covariates, the relative risk for a cardiovascular event in patients receiving high-dose glucocorticoids was 2.56 (CI, 2.18 to 2.99). Because the data were observational, residual confounding cannot be excluded. Treatment with high-dose glucocorticoids seemed to be associated with increased risk for cardiovascular disease.
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              11β-HSD1 is the major regulator of the tissue-specific effects of circulating glucocorticoid excess.

              The adverse metabolic effects of prescribed and endogenous glucocorticoid (GC) excess, Cushing syndrome, create a significant health burden. We found that tissue regeneration of GCs by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1), rather than circulating delivery, is critical to developing the phenotype of GC excess; 11β-HSD1 KO mice with circulating GC excess are protected from the glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia, hepatic steatosis, adiposity, hypertension, myopathy, and dermal atrophy of Cushing syndrome. Whereas liver-specific 11β-HSD1 KO mice developed a full Cushingoid phenotype, adipose-specific 11β-HSD1 KO mice were protected from hepatic steatosis and circulating fatty acid excess. These data challenge our current view of GC action, demonstrating 11β-HSD1, particularly in adipose tissue, is key to the development of the adverse metabolic profile associated with circulating GC excess, offering 11β-HSD1 inhibition as a previously unidentified approach to treat Cushing syndrome.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                J Endocrinol
                J. Endocrinol
                JOE
                The Journal of Endocrinology
                Bioscientifica Ltd (Bristol )
                0022-0795
                1479-6805
                June 2016
                01 June 2016
                : 229
                : 3
                : 277-286
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research Institute of Biomedical Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
                [2 ]Centre for Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism Birmingham Health Partners, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
                [3 ]School of Medicine Worsley Building, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
                Author notes
                Correspondence should be addressed to S A Morgan; Email xstabib0@ 123456hotmail.com
                Article
                JOE160011
                10.1530/JOE-16-0011
                5064767
                27048233
                217b4764-c5ba-488e-a63a-28504d0bdad9
                © 2016 Society for Endocrinology

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License

                History
                : 16 March 2016
                : 5 April 2016
                Categories
                Research

                Endocrinology & Diabetes
                glucocorticoid,11β-hsd1,protein metabolism,cushing’s syndrome
                Endocrinology & Diabetes
                glucocorticoid, 11β-hsd1, protein metabolism, cushing’s syndrome

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