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      Effectiveness of an Individualized Training Based on Force-Velocity Profiling during Jumping

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          Abstract

          Ballistic performances are determined by both the maximal lower limb power output ( P max ) and their individual force-velocity (F-v) mechanical profile, especially the F-v imbalance ( FV imb ): difference between the athlete's actual and optimal profile. An optimized training should aim to increase P max and/or reduce FV imb . The aim of this study was to test whether an individualized training program based on the individual F-v profile would decrease subjects' individual FV imb and in turn improve vertical jump performance. FVimb was used as the reference to assign participants to different training intervention groups. Eighty four subjects were assigned to three groups: an “optimized” group divided into velocity-deficit, force-deficit, and well-balanced sub-groups based on subjects' FV imb , a “non-optimized” group for which the training program was not specifically based on FV imb and a control group. All subjects underwent a 9-week specific resistance training program. The programs were designed to reduce FV imb for the optimized groups (with specific programs for sub-groups based on individual FV imb values), while the non-optimized group followed a classical program exactly similar for all subjects. All subjects in the three optimized training sub-groups (velocity-deficit, force-deficit, and well-balanced) increased their jumping performance (12.7 ± 5.7% ES = 0.93 ± 0.09, 14.2 ± 7.3% ES = 1.00 ± 0.17, and 7.2 ± 4.5% ES = 0.70 ± 0.36, respectively) with jump height improvement for all subjects, whereas the results were much more variable and unclear in the non-optimized group. This greater change in jump height was associated with a markedly reduced FV imb for both force-deficit (57.9 ± 34.7% decrease in FV imb ) and velocity-deficit (20.1 ± 4.3%) subjects, and unclear or small changes in P max (−0.40 ± 8.4% and +10.5 ± 5.2%, respectively). An individualized training program specifically based on FV imb (gap between the actual and optimal F-v profiles of each individual) was more efficient at improving jumping performance (i.e., unloaded squat jump height) than a traditional resistance training common to all subjects regardless of their FV imb . Although improving both FV imb and P max has to be considered to improve ballistic performance, the present results showed that reducing FV imb without even increasing P max lead to clearly beneficial jump performance changes. Thus, FV imb could be considered as a potentially useful variable for prescribing optimal resistance training to improve ballistic performance.

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          Developing maximal neuromuscular power: part 2 - training considerations for improving maximal power production.

          This series of reviews focuses on the most important neuromuscular function in many sport performances: the ability to generate maximal muscular power. Part 1, published in an earlier issue of Sports Medicine, focused on the factors that affect maximal power production while part 2 explores the practical application of these findings by reviewing the scientific literature relevant to the development of training programmes that most effectively enhance maximal power production. The ability to generate maximal power during complex motor skills is of paramount importance to successful athletic performance across many sports. A crucial issue faced by scientists and coaches is the development of effective and efficient training programmes that improve maximal power production in dynamic, multi-joint movements. Such training is referred to as 'power training' for the purposes of this review. Although further research is required in order to gain a deeper understanding of the optimal training techniques for maximizing power in complex, sports-specific movements and the precise mechanisms underlying adaptation, several key conclusions can be drawn from this review. First, a fundamental relationship exists between strength and power, which dictates that an individual cannot possess a high level of power without first being relatively strong. Thus, enhancing and maintaining maximal strength is essential when considering the long-term development of power. Second, consideration of movement pattern, load and velocity specificity is essential when designing power training programmes. Ballistic, plyometric and weightlifting exercises can be used effectively as primary exercises within a power training programme that enhances maximal power. The loads applied to these exercises will depend on the specific requirements of each particular sport and the type of movement being trained. The use of ballistic exercises with loads ranging from 0% to 50% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) and/or weightlifting exercises performed with loads ranging from 50% to 90% of 1RM appears to be the most potent loading stimulus for improving maximal power in complex movements. Furthermore, plyometric exercises should involve stretch rates as well as stretch loads that are similar to those encountered in each specific sport and involve little to no external resistance. These loading conditions allow for superior transfer to performance because they require similar movement velocities to those typically encountered in sport. Third, it is vital to consider the individual athlete's window of adaptation (i.e. the magnitude of potential for improvement) for each neuromuscular factor contributing to maximal power production when developing an effective and efficient power training programme. A training programme that focuses on the least developed factor contributing to maximal power will prompt the greatest neuromuscular adaptations and therefore result in superior performance improvements for that individual. Finally, a key consideration for the long-term development of an athlete's maximal power production capacity is the need for an integration of numerous power training techniques. This integration allows for variation within power meso-/micro-cycles while still maintaining specificity, which is theorized to lead to the greatest long-term improvement in maximal power.
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            Changes in single motor unit behaviour contribute to the increase in contraction speed after dynamic training in humans.

            1. The adaptations of the ankle dorsiflexor muscles and the behaviour of single motor units in the tibialis anterior in response to 12 weeks of dynamic training were studied in five human subjects. In each training session ten series of ten fast dorsiflexions were performed 5 days a week, against a load of 30-40% of the maximal muscle strength. 2. Training led to an enhancement of maximal voluntary muscle contraction (MVC) and the speed of voluntary ballistic contraction. This last enhancement was mainly related to neural adaptations since the time course of the muscle twitch induced by electrical stimulation remained unaffected. 3. The motor unit torque, recorded by the spike-triggered averaging method, increased without any change in its time to peak. The orderly motor unit recruitment (size principle) was preserved during slow ramp contraction after training but the units were activated earlier and had a greater maximal firing frequency during voluntary ballistic contractions. In addition, the high frequency firing rate observed at the onset of the contractions was maintained during the subsequent spikes after training. 4. Dynamic training induced brief (2-5 ms) motor unit interspike intervals, or 'doublets'. These doublets appeared to be different from the closely spaced (+/-10 ms) discharges usually observed at the onset of the ballistic contractions. Motor units with different recruitment thresholds showed doublet discharges and the percentage of the sample of units firing doublets was increased by training from 5.2 to 32.7%. The presence of these discharges was observed not only at the onset of the series of spikes but also later in the electromyographic (EMG) burst. 5. It is likely that earlier motor unit activation, extra doublets and enhanced maximal firing rate contribute to the increase in the speed of voluntary muscle contraction after dynamic training.
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              The Adaptations to Strength Training

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Physiol
                Front Physiol
                Front. Physiol.
                Frontiers in Physiology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-042X
                09 January 2017
                2016
                : 7
                : 677
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Faculty of Sport, Catholic University of San Antonio Murcia, Spain
                [2] 2Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Biologie de la motricité (EA7424), University of Savoie Mont Blanc Le Bourget du Lac, France
                [3] 3Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology Auckland, New Zealand
                [4] 4Université Côte d'Azur, LAMHESS Nice, France
                Author notes

                Edited by: Gregoire P. Millet, University of Lausanne, Switzerland

                Reviewed by: Chris R. Abbiss, Edith Cowan University, Australia; Davide Viggiano, University of Molise, Italy

                *Correspondence: Jean-Benoît Morin jean-benoit.morin@ 123456unice.fr

                This article was submitted to Exercise Physiology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Physiology

                Article
                10.3389/fphys.2016.00677
                5220048
                28119624
                24c1d934-a04c-4bf5-be37-d74cc79333e6
                Copyright © 2017 Jiménez-Reyes, Samozino, Brughelli and Morin.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 02 September 2016
                : 20 December 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 3, Equations: 1, References: 68, Pages: 13, Words: 11284
                Funding
                Funded by: Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte 10.13039/501100003176
                Award ID: CAS15/00171
                Categories
                Physiology
                Original Research

                Anatomy & Physiology
                jumping,ballistic training,explosive performance,resistance strength training,maximal power output

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