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      Developing and Establishing Biomechanical Variables as Risk Biomarkers for Preventable Gait-Related Falls and Assessment of Intervention Effectiveness

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          Abstract

          The purpose of this review is to position the emerging clinical promise of validating and implementing biomechanical biomarkers of falls in fall prevention interventions. The review is framed in the desirability of blunting the effects of the rapidly growing population of older adults with regard to the number of falls, their related injuries, and health care costs. We propose that biomechanical risk biomarkers may be derived from systematic study of the responses to treadmill-delivered perturbations to both identify individuals with a risk of specific types of falls, such as trips and slips as well as quantifying the effectiveness of interventions designed to reduce that risk. The review follows the evidence derived using a specific public health approach and the published biomedical literature that supports trunk kinematics as a biomarker as having met many of the criteria for a biomarker for trip-specific falls. Whereas, the efficacy of perturbation training to reduce slip-related falls by older adults appears to have been confirmed, its effectiveness presently remains an open and important question. There is a dearth of data related to the efficacy and effectiveness of perturbation training to reduce falls to the side falls by older adults. At present, efforts to characterize the extent to which perturbation training can reduce falls and translate the approaches to the clinic represents an important research opportunity.

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          Most cited references76

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          Risk factors for falls among elderly persons living in the community.

          To study risk factors for falling, we conducted a one-year prospective investigation, using a sample of 336 persons at least 75 years of age who were living in the community. All subjects underwent detailed clinical evaluation, including standardized measures of mental status, strength, reflexes, balance, and gait; in addition, we inspected their homes for environmental hazards. Falls and their circumstances were identified during bimonthly telephone calls. During one year of follow-up, 108 subjects (32 percent) fell at least once; 24 percent of those who fell had serious injuries and 6 percent had fractures. Predisposing factors for falls were identified in linear-logistic models. The adjusted odds ratio for sedative use was 28.3; for cognitive impairment, 5.0; for disability of the lower extremities, 3.8; for palmomental reflex, 3.0; for abnormalities of balance and gait, 1.9; and for foot problems, 1.8; the lower bounds of the 95 percent confidence intervals were 1 or more for all variables. The risk of falling increased linearly with the number of risk factors, from 8 percent with none to 78 percent with four or more risk factors (P less than 0.0001). About 10 percent of the falls occurred during acute illness, 5 percent during hazardous activity, and 44 percent in the presence of environmental hazards. We conclude that falls among older persons living in the community are common and that a simple clinical assessment can identify the elderly persons who are at the greatest risk of falling.
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            The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?

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              The condition for dynamic stability.

              The well-known condition for standing stability in static situations is that the vertical projection of the centre of mass (CoM) should be within the base of support (BoS). On the basis of a simple inverted pendulum model, an extension of this rule is proposed for dynamical situations: the position of (the vertical projection of) the CoM plus its velocity times a factor (square root l/g) should be within the BoS, l being leg length and g the acceleration of gravity. It is proposed to name this vector quantity 'extrapolated centre of mass position' (XcoM). The definition suggests as a measure of stability the 'margin of stability' b, the minimum distance from XcoM to the boundaries of the BoS. An alternative measure is the temporal stability margin tau, the time in which the boundary of the BoS would be reached without intervention. Some experimental data of subjects standing on one or two feet, flatfoot and tiptoe, are presented to give an idea of the usual ranges of these margins of stability. Example data on walking are also presented.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Sports Act Living
                Front Sports Act Living
                Front. Sports Act. Living
                Frontiers in Sports and Active Living
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                2624-9367
                22 September 2021
                2021
                : 3
                : 722363
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Biomechanics and Clinical Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition, University of Illinois at Chicago , Chicago, IL, United States
                [2] 2Motion Analysis Laboratory, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, MN, United States
                Author notes

                Edited by: Yoshiro Okubo, Neuroscience Research Australia, Australia

                Reviewed by: Christopher McCrum, Maastricht University, Netherlands; Kenneth Meijer, Maastricht University, Netherlands

                *Correspondence: Mark D. Grabiner grabiner@ 123456uic.edu

                This article was submitted to Biomechanics and Control of Human Movement, a section of the journal Frontiers in Sports and Active Living

                Article
                10.3389/fspor.2021.722363
                8492908
                34632378
                25261fee-852a-4cde-b43f-74bacd7df8e5
                Copyright © 2021 Grabiner and Kaufman.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 08 June 2021
                : 26 August 2021
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 84, Pages: 11, Words: 10453
                Categories
                Sports and Active Living
                Review

                injury,intervention,perturbation training,prevention,risk factors

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