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      Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection diagnosed by polymerase chain reaction in female sex workers in a Northern Mexican City

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          Abstract

          Purpose: We aimed to determine the association between Chlamydia trachomatis infection and female sex work, and the association between sociodemographic, obstetric, and behavioral characteristics of female sex workers and C. trachomatis infection.

          Methods: Through a case–control study design, we studied 201 female sex workers and 201 age-matched women without sex work in Durango City, Mexico. C. trachomatis DNA was detected in cervical swab samples using polymerase chain reaction.

          Results: C. trachomatis DNA was detected in 32 (15.9%) of the 201 cases and in 6 (3.0%) of the 201 controls (odds ratio [OR] = 6.15; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.5–15.0; P < 0.001). The frequency of infection with C. trachomatis in female sex workers did not vary ( P > 0.05) regardless of the history of pregnancies, deliveries, cesarean sections, or miscarriages. Regression analysis of the behavioral characteristics showed that infection with C. trachomatis was associated only with consumption of alcohol (OR = 2.39; 95% CI: 1.0–5.71; P = 0.04).

          Conclusions: We conclude that C. trachomatis infection is associated with female sex work in Durango City, Mexico. This is the first age-matched case–control study on the prevalence of C. trachomatis infection in female sex workers in Mexico using detection of C. trachomatis DNA in cervical samples.

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          Chlamydia Trachomatis Infection-Associated Risk of Cervical Cancer

          Haiyan Zhu, Zhaojun Shen, Hui Luo … (2016)
          Abstract As whether Chlamydia trachomatis infection increases the risk of cervical cancer is controversial in the literature, we performed a meta-analysis. Based on a comprehensive search of publications in the Medline, Cochrane, and EMBASE databases, we identified and extracted data from all relevant articles examining C. trachomatis infection and the risk of cervical cancer. The quality of each included study was assessed according to the 9-star Newcastle–Ottawa scale. The strength of association between the C. trachomatis and risk of cervical cancer was estimated by odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). This review was registered at PROSPERO with registration No. CRD42014015672. A total of 22 studies with 4291 cervical cancer cases and 7628 controls were identified. Overall, C. trachomatis was significantly linked to increased cervical cancer risk in prospective studies (OR = 2.21, 95% CI: 1.88–2.61, P < 0.001), as well as in retrospective studies (OR = 2.19, 95% CI: 1.74–2.74, P < 0.001). Additionally, with a multivariate logistic regression analysis adjusted for HPV and age, C. trachomatis infection was identified as an independent predictor of cervical cancer in 11 studies (OR = 1.76, 95% CI: 1.03–3.01, P = 0.04). Coinfection of human papilloma virus and C. trachomatis has a higher risk of cervical cancer (OR = 4.03, 95% CI: 3.15–5.16, P < 0.001). A subgroup analysis based on histological type indicated an elevated risk for both squamous cell carcinoma (OR = 2.21, 95% CI: 2.00–2.45, P < 0.001), and adenocarcinoma (OR = 1.61, 95% CI: 1.21–2.15, P = 0.001), in associated with C. trachomatis. Subgroup analysis by where C. trachomatis infection was detected showed a significantly higher risk of cervical cancer associated with C. trachomatis infection detected in serum (OR = 2.20, 95% CI: 2.01–2.42, P < 0.001), cervical tissue blocks (OR = 2.88, 95% CI: 1.21–6.83, P = 0.02), and cervical secretion (OR = 2.71, 95% CI: 1.41–5.20, P = 0.003), especially in serum with no obvious heterogeneity. In conclusion, our novel data demonstrate that individuals infected with C. trachomatis have a higher risk of cervical cancer. Therefore, it is necessary to expand C. trachomatis infection screening and treat women with C. trachomatis promptly, particularly those with human papilloma virus infections. This approach will not only protect against pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility, but may also prevent cervical cancer.
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            Chlamydia trachomatis: the Persistent Pathogen.

            Steven S. Witkin, Evelyn Minis, Aikaterini Athanasiou … (2017)
            Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular bacterium whose only natural host is humans. Although presenting as asymptomatic in most women, genital tract chlamydial infections are a leading cause of pelvic inflammatory disease, tubal factor infertility, and ectopic pregnancy.C. trachomatishas evolved successful mechanisms to avoid destruction by autophagy and the host immune system and persist within host epithelial cells. The intracellular form of this organism, the reticulate body, can enter into a persistent nonreplicative but viable state under unfavorable conditions. The infectious form of the organism, the elementary body, is again generated when the immune attack subsides. In its persistent form,C. trachomatisceases to produce its major structural and membrane components, but synthesis of its 60-kDa heat shock protein (hsp60) is greatly upregulated and released from the cell. The immune response to hsp60, perhaps exacerbated by repeated cycles of productive infection and persistence, may promote damage to fallopian tube epithelial cells, scar formation, and tubal occlusion. The chlamydial and human hsp60 proteins are very similar, and hsp60 is one of the first proteins produced by newly formed embryos. Thus, the development of immunity to epitopes in the chlamydial hsp60 that are also present in the corresponding human hsp60 may increase susceptibility to pregnancy failure in infected women. Delineation of host factors that increase the likelihood thatC. trachomatiswill avoid immune destruction and survive within host epithelial cells and utilization of this knowledge to design individualized preventative and treatment protocols are needed to more effectively combat infections by this persistent pathogen.
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              Chlamydia trachomatis infections in neonates and young children.

              Toni Darville (2005)
              In 1911, Lindner and colleagues identified intracytoplasmic inclusions in infants with a nongonococcal form of ophthalmia neonatorum called inclusion conjunctivitis of the newborn (ICN). Mothers of affected infants were found to have inclusions in their cervical epithelial cells, fathers of such infants had inclusions in their urethral cells, and the epidemiology of sexually transmitted chlamydial infections was revealed. Fifty years later, chlamydial isolation procedures were developed, and studies again demonstrated Chlamydia trachomatis as an etiology of ICN and the female birth canal as the reservoir. In the late 1970s, a report by Beem and Saxon described respiratory tract colonization and a distinct pneumonia syndrome in infected infants. Genital chlamydial infection is recognized as the world's most common sexually transmitted disease, with estimates of greater than 4 million new infections occurring annually in the United States. Although most C. trachomatis infections in men and women are asymptomatic, infection can lead to severe reproductive complications in women. The high prevalence in women of child-bearing age results in exposure of an estimated 100,000 neonates in the United States annually. Many of these infants develop conjunctivitis, pneumonia, or both in the first few months of life. Clinical features, diagnosis, treatment, and approaches to prevention of conjunctivitis and pneumonia in the newborn and young infant are reviewed here. Appropriate testing for chlamydial infection in a pediatric victim of sexual assault and the implications of identifying C. trachomatis in suspected cases of childhood sexual abuse also are reviewed.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (publisher-id): 1886
                Title: European Journal of Microbiology and Immunology
                Abbreviated Title: EuJMI
                Publisher: Akadémiai Kiadó
                ISSN (Electronic): 2062-8633
                Publication date (Print): March 2019
                Volume: 9
                Issue: 1
                Pages: 5-8
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ]Institute for Scientific Research “Dr. Roberto Rivera-Damm”, Juárez University of Durango State , Avenida Universidad S/N, 34000 Durango, Mexico
                [ 2 ]Departamento de Infectología, Laboratorio de Virología del Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Departamento de Microbiología de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional , D.F México
                [ 3 ]Faculty of Medicine and Nutrition, Juárez University of Durango State , Avenida Universidad S/N, 34000 Durango, Mexico
                Author notes
                [*]

                Author for correspondence: Biomedical Research Laboratory. Faculty of Medicine and Nutrition, Juárez University of Durango State, Avenida Universidad S/N, 34000 Durango, Dgo, Mexico; Tel: +52-618 8130527; Fax: +52-618 8130527; alvaradocosme@ 123456yahoo.com .

                Article
                DOI: 10.1556/1886.2018.00034
                PMC ID: 6444802
                SO-VID: 26762fbb-ab2c-4380-8475-a868d230deb7
                Copyright statement: © 2019 The Author(s)
                License:

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial purposes, provided the original author and source are credited, a link to the CC License is provided, and changes - if any - are indicated.

                History
                Date received : 30 December 2018
                Date accepted : 21 January 2019
                Date: 2 February 2019
                Page count
                Pages: 4
                Product
                Self URI (journal page): https://akademiai.com/info/collections/scienceopen/life
                Categories
                Subject: Original Research Paper

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Medicine,Immunology,Health & Social care,Microbiology & Virology,Infectious disease & Microbiology
                Keywords: prevalence,female sex workers,case–control study, Chlamydia trachomatis
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Medicine, Immunology, Health & Social care, Microbiology & Virology, Infectious disease & Microbiology
                Keywords: prevalence, female sex workers, case–control study, Chlamydia trachomatis

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