Unexpected colour pattern variation in mimetic frogs: implication for the diversification of warning signals in the genus Ranitomeya

Abstract

Predation is expected to promote uniformity in the warning coloration of defended prey, but also mimicry convergence between aposematic species. Despite selection constraining both colour-pattern and population divergence, many aposematic animals display numerous geographically structured populations with distinct warning signal. Here, we explore the extent of phenotypic variation of sympatric species of Ranitomeya poison frogs and test for theoretical expectations on variation and convergence in mimetic signals. We demonstrate that both warning signal and mimetic convergence are highly variable and are negatively correlated: some localities display high variability and no mimicry while in others the phenotype is fixed and mimicry is perfect. Moreover, variation in warning signals is always present within localities, and in many cases this variation overlaps between populations, such that variation is continuous. Finally, we show that coloration is consistently the least variable element and is likely of greater importance for predator avoidance compared to patterning. We discuss the implications of our results in the context of warning signal diversification and suggest that, like many other locally adapted traits, a combination of standing genetic variation and founding effect might be sufficient to enable divergence in colour pattern.