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      Survival and inactivation of human norovirus GII.4 Sydney on commonly touched airplane cabin surfaces

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          Abstract

          Human norovirus (HuNoV) is one of the leading causes of acute gastroenteritis globally. HuNoV outbreaks have been recently reported during air travels. Contaminated surfaces are known as a critical transmission route at various settings. The aim of this study was to provide key information about the survival and the decontamination of HuNoV on three commonly touched airplane cabin surfaces.

          In this study, we monitored the survival of HuNoV on seat leather, plastic tray table, and seatbelt for 30 days, with and without additional organic load (simulated gastric fluid). The efficacy of two EPA registered anti-norovirus disinfectants were also evaluated. Results showed that HuNoV was detected at high titers (>4 log 10 genomic copy number) for up to 30 days when additional organic load was present. Both tested disinfectants were found highly ineffective against HuNoV when the surface was soiled.

          The study showed that when the organic load was present, HuNoV was highly stable and resistant against disinfectants. Findings from this study indicated that appropriate procedures should be developed by airline companies with the help of public health authorities to decrease passengers' exposure risk to HuNoV.

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          Most cited references30

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          Rapid and sensitive detection of noroviruses by using TaqMan-based one-step reverse transcription-PCR assays and application to naturally contaminated shellfish samples.

          Noroviruses (NoV), which are members of the family Caliciviridae, are the most important cause of outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis worldwide and are commonly found in shellfish grown in polluted waters. In the present study, we developed broadly reactive one-step TaqMan reverse transcription (RT)-PCR assays for the detection of genogroup I (GI) and GII NoV in fecal samples, as well as shellfish samples. The specificity and sensitivity of all steps of the assays were systematically evaluated, and in the final format, the monoplex assays were validated by using RNA extracted from a panel of 84 stool specimens, which included NoV strains representing 19 different genotypes (7 GI, 11 GII, and 1 GIV strains). The assays were further validated with 38 shellfish cDNA extracts previously tested by nested PCR. Comparison with a recently described real-time assay showed that our assay had significantly higher sensitivity and was at least as sensitive as the nested PCR. For stool specimens, a one-step duplex TaqMan RT-PCR assay performed as well as individual genogroup-specific monoplex assays. All other enteric viruses examined were negative, and no cross-reaction between genogroups was observed. These TaqMan RT-PCR assays provide rapid (less than 90 min), sensitive, and reliable detection of NoV and should prove to be useful for routine monitoring of both clinical and shellfish samples.
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            Comprehensive comparison of cultivable norovirus surrogates in response to different inactivation and disinfection treatments.

            Human norovirus is the leading cause of epidemic and sporadic acute gastroenteritis. Since no cell culture method for human norovirus exists, cultivable surrogate viruses (CSV), including feline calicivirus (FCV), murine norovirus (MNV), porcine enteric calicivirus (PEC), and Tulane virus (TuV), have been used to study responses to inactivation and disinfection methods. We compared the levels of reduction in infectivities of CSV and Aichi virus (AiV) after exposure to extreme pHs, 56°C heating, alcohols, chlorine on surfaces, and high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), using the same matrix and identical test parameters for all viruses, as well as the reduction of human norovirus RNA levels under these conditions. At pH 2, FCV was inactivated by 6 log10 units, whereas MNV, TuV, and AiV were resistant. All CSV were completely inactivated at 56°C within 20 min. MNV was inactivated 5 log10 units by alcohols, in contrast to 2 and 3 log10 units for FCV and PEC, respectively. TuV and AiV were relatively insensitive to alcohols. FCV was reduced 5 log10 units by 1,000 ppm chlorine, in contrast to 1 log10 unit for the other CSV. All CSV except FCV, when dried on stainless steel surfaces, were insensitive to 200 ppm chlorine. HHP completely inactivated FCV, MNV, and PEC at ≥300 MPa, and TuV at 600 MPa, while AiV was completely resistant to HHP up to 800 MPa. By reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), genogroup I (GI) noroviruses were more sensitive than GII noroviruses to alcohols, chlorine, and HHP. Although inactivation profiles were variable for each treatment, TuV and MNV were the most resistant CSV overall and therefore are the best candidates for studying the public health outcomes of norovirus infections.
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              A norovirus outbreak at a long-term-care facility: the role of environmental surface contamination.

              The role of environmental surface contamination in the propagation of norovirus outbreaks is unclear. An outbreak of acute gastroenteritis was reported among residents of a 240-bed veterans long-term-care facility. To identify the likely mode of transmission, to characterize risk factors for illness, and to evaluate for environmental contamination in this norovirus outbreak. An outbreak investigation was conducted to identify risk factors for illness among residents and employees. Stool and vomitus samples were tested for norovirus by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Fourteen days after outbreak detection, ongoing cases among the residents prompted environmental surface testing for norovirus by RT-PCR. One hundred twenty-seven (52%) of 246 residents and 84 (46%) of 181 surveyed employees had gastroenteritis. Case-residents did not differ from non-case-residents by comorbidities, diet, room type, or level of mobility. Index cases were among the nursing staff. Eight of 11 resident stool or vomitus samples tested positive for genogroup II norovirus. The all-cause mortality rate during the month of the outbreak peak was significantly higher than the expected rate. Environmental surface swabs from case-resident rooms, a dining room table, and an elevator button used only by employees were positive for norovirus. Environmental and clinical norovirus sequences were identical. Extensive contamination of environmental surfaces may play a role in prolonged norovirus outbreaks and should be addressed in control interventions.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                AIMS Public Health
                AIMS Public Health
                PublicHealth
                AIMS Public Health
                AIMS Press
                2327-8994
                29 July 2020
                2020
                : 7
                : 3
                : 574-586
                Affiliations
                [1]School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
                Author notes
                * Correspondence: Email: Wenqing.Xu@ 123456agcenter.lsu.edu .
                Article
                publichealth-07-03-046
                10.3934/publichealth.2020046
                7505796
                32968679
                28b7a31e-55e5-4717-baad-1728b3717404
                © 2020 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)

                History
                : 11 May 2020
                : 13 July 2020
                Categories
                Research Article

                human norovirus,airplane cabin surfaces,survival,inactivation,epa registered disinfectants

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