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      Species recognition through wing interference patterns (WIPs) in Achrysocharoides Girault (Hymenoptera, Eulophidae) including two new species

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          Abstract

          Abstract

          Wing interference patterns (WIPs) are shown to be an important tool for species recognition in the genus Achrysocharoides Girault ( Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). This is demonstrated by combining information from two previously published papers, comprising two cases of cryptic species, and by new material including the description of two new species, Achrysocharoides maieri and Achrysocharoides serotinae from North America. The cryptic species were initially separated through their distinct male WIPs. Subsequent analyses of the external morphology uncovered additional morphological differences supporting the original findings through WIPs, and biological data further strengthened the identity of these species. The new species described here also differ in their WIPs but the WIPs are similar in both sexes. Thus they provide a strong link between male and female and demonstrate that WIPs can also be useful for species recognition when the sexes are otherwise difficult to associate. Both new species are from Connecticut, USA, and were reared from Phyllonorycter propinquinella (Braun) ( Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) on black cherry ( Prunus serotina ); Achrysocharoides maieri has also been reared from Ph. nr crataegella on pin cherry ( Prunus pensylvanica ). To facilitate the identification of the new species they are included in a previously published key to North American species of Achrysocharoides . As a supplement to colourful WIPs we also demonstrate that grey scale images of uncoated wings from scanning electron microscopy can be used for visualization of the thickness distribution pattern in wing membranes.

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          Stable structural color patterns displayed on transparent insect wings.

          Color patterns play central roles in the behavior of insects, and are important traits for taxonomic studies. Here we report striking and stable structural color patterns--wing interference patterns (WIPs)--in the transparent wings of small Hymenoptera and Diptera, patterns that have been largely overlooked by biologists. These extremely thin wings reflect vivid color patterns caused by thin film interference. The visibility of these patterns is affected by the way the insects display their wings against various backgrounds with different light properties. The specific color sequence displayed lacks pure red and matches the color vision of most insects, strongly suggesting that the biological significance of WIPs lies in visual signaling. Taxon-specific color patterns are formed by uneven membrane thickness, pigmentation, venation, and hair placement. The optically refracted pattern is also stabilized by microstructures of the wing such as membrane corrugations and spherical cell structures that reinforce the pattern and make it essentially noniridescent over a large range of light incidences. WIPs can be applied to map the micromorphology of wings through direct observation and are useful in several fields of biology. We demonstrate their usefulness as identification patterns to solve cases of cryptic species complexes in tiny parasitic wasps, and indicate their potentials for research on the genetic control of wing development through direct links between the transregulatory wing landscape and interference patterns we observe in Drosophila model species. Some species display sexually dimorphic WIPs, suggesting sexual selection as one of the driving forces for their evolution.
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            Biology and taxonomy of species of the genus Enaysma Delucchi (Hym., Eulophidae, Entedontinae) with special reference to the British fauna

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              The evolution of host use and unusual reproductive strategies in Achrysocharoides parasitoid wasps.

              We studied host selection and exploitation, two crucial aspects of parasite ecology, in Achrysocharoides parasitoid wasps, which show remarkable host specificity and unusual offspring sex allocation. We estimated a molecular phylogeny of 15 Achrysocharoides species and compared this with host (plant and insect) phylogenies. This tri-trophic phylogenetic comparison provides no evidence for cospeciation, but parasitoids do show phylogenetic conservation of the use of plant genera. Patterns of sequence divergence also suggest that the parasitoids radiated more recently (or evolved much faster) than their insect hosts. Three main categories of brood production occur in parasitoids: (1) solitary offspring, (2) mixed sex broods and (3) separate (split) sex broods. Split sex broods are very rare and virtually restricted to Achrysocharoides, while the other types occur very widely. Our phylogeny suggests that split sex broods have evolved twice and provides evidence for a transition from solitary to mixed sex broods, via split sex broods, as predicted by theory.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                URI : urn:lsid:zoobank.org:author:470FE964-AB06-4DDF-AFA7-7027AC5A8FBA
                URI : urn:lsid:zoobank.org:author:EC91EABD-7115-4B05-BC80-9195C86FA55D
                Journal
                Zookeys
                ZooKeys
                ZooKeys
                Pensoft Publishers
                1313-2989
                1313-2970
                2011
                12 December 2011
                : 154
                : 9-30
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 35, SE-22362 Lund, Sweden
                [2 ]Scientific Associate of the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, South Kensington, London SW7 5BD, United Kingdom
                Author notes
                Corresponding author: Ekaterina Shevtsova ( ekaterina.shevtsova@ 123456biol.lu.se )

                Academic editor: N. Johnson

                Article
                10.3897/zookeys.154.2158
                3238038
                22287914
                2939cb85-76c4-4262-bf99-e9343ba9a579
                Ekaterina Shevtsova, Christer Hansson

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 28 September 2011
                : 25 November 2011
                Categories
                Article

                Animal science & Zoology
                phyllonorycter nr crataegella,taxonomy,achrysocharoides maieri,entedoninae,chalcidoidea,cryptic species,achrysocharoides platanoidae,leafminer parasitoids,phyllonorycter propinquinella,sexual dimorphism,prunus pensylvanica,achrysocharoides robinicolus,achrysocharoides albiscapus,achrysocharoides acerianus,achrysocharoides latreilleii,achrysocharoides butus,structural colours,wing membrane thickness,achrysocharoides serotinae,prunus serotina,achrysocharoides robiniae

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