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      Impact of Outdoor Air Pollution on Indoor Air Quality in Low-Income Homes during Wildfire Seasons

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          Abstract

          Indoor and outdoor number concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5), black carbon (BC), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) were monitored continuously for two to seven days in 28 low-income homes in Denver, Colorado, during the 2016 and 2017 wildfire seasons. In the absence of indoor sources, all outdoor pollutant concentrations were higher than indoors except for CO. Results showed that long-range wildfire plumes elevated median indoor PM 2.5 concentrations by up to 4.6 times higher than outdoors. BC, CO, and NO 2 mass concentrations were higher indoors in homes closer to roadways compared to those further away. Four of the homes with mechanical ventilation systems had 18% higher indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios of PM 2.5 and 4% higher I/O ratios of BC compared to other homes. Homes with exhaust stove hoods had PM 2.5 I/O ratios 49% less than the homes with recirculating hoods and 55% less than the homes with no stove hoods installed. Homes with windows open for more than 12 hours a day during sampling had indoor BC 2.4 times higher than homes with windows closed. This study provides evidence that long-range wildfire plumes, road proximity, and occupant behavior have a combined effect on indoor air quality in low-income homes.

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          The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): a resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants.

          N E Klepeis, W C Nelson, W R Ott … (2001)
          Because human activities impact the timing, location, and degree of pollutant exposure, they play a key role in explaining exposure variation. This fact has motivated the collection of activity pattern data for their specific use in exposure assessments. The largest of these recent efforts is the National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS), a 2-year probability-based telephone survey (n=9386) of exposure-related human activities in the United States (U.S.) sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The primary purpose of NHAPS was to provide comprehensive and current exposure information over broad geographical and temporal scales, particularly for use in probabilistic population exposure models. NHAPS was conducted on a virtually daily basis from late September 1992 through September 1994 by the University of Maryland's Survey Research Center using a computer-assisted telephone interview instrument (CATI) to collect 24-h retrospective diaries and answers to a number of personal and exposure-related questions from each respondent. The resulting diary records contain beginning and ending times for each distinct combination of location and activity occurring on the diary day (i.e., each microenvironment). Between 340 and 1713 respondents of all ages were interviewed in each of the 10 EPA regions across the 48 contiguous states. Interviews were completed in 63% of the households contacted. NHAPS respondents reported spending an average of 87% of their time in enclosed buildings and about 6% of their time in enclosed vehicles. These proportions are fairly constant across the various regions of the U.S. and Canada and for the California population between the late 1980s, when the California Air Resources Board (CARB) sponsored a state-wide activity pattern study, and the mid-1990s, when NHAPS was conducted. However, the number of people exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in California seems to have decreased over the same time period, where exposure is determined by the reported time spent with a smoker. In both California and the entire nation, the most time spent exposed to ETS was reported to take place in residential locations.
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            Effect of climate change on air quality

            Daniel Jacob, Darrell A. Winner (2009)
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              Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: a cohort study.

              Gerard Hoek, Bert Brunekreef, Sandra Goldbohm … (2002)
              Long-term exposure to particulate matter air pollution has been associated with increased cardiopulmonary mortality in the USA. We aimed to assess the relation between traffic-related air pollution and mortality in participants of the Netherlands Cohort study on Diet and Cancer (NLCS), an ongoing study. We investigated a random sample of 5000 people from the full cohort of the NLCS study (age 55-69 years) from 1986 to 1994. Long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollutants (black smoke and nitrogen dioxide) was estimated for the 1986 home address. Exposure was characterised with the measured regional and urban background concentration and an indicator variable for living near major roads. The association between exposure to air pollution and (cause specific) mortality was assessed with Cox's proportional hazards models, with adjustment for potential confounders. 489 (11%) of 4492 people with data died during the follow-up period. Cardiopulmonary mortality was associated with living near a major road (relative risk 1.95, 95% CI 1.09-3.52) and, less consistently, with the estimated ambient background concentration (1.34, 0.68-2.64). The relative risk for living near a major road was 1.41 (0.94-2.12) for total deaths. Non-cardiopulmonary, non-lung cancer deaths were unrelated to air pollution (1.03, 0.54-1.96 for living near a major road). Long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution may shorten life expectancy.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Int J Environ Res Public Health
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Int J Environ Res Public Health
                Journal ID (publisher-id): ijerph
                Title: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Print): 1661-7827
                ISSN (Electronic): 1660-4601
                Publication date (Electronic): 21 September 2019
                Publication date (Print): October 2019
                Volume: 16
                Issue: 19
                Electronic Location Identifier: 3535
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; prateek.shrestha@ 123456colorado.edu (P.M.S.); jlh563@ 123456drexel.edu (J.L.H.)
                [2 ]Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Colorado, Colorado School of Public Health, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; ELIZABETH.CARLTON@ 123456ucdenver.edu (E.J.C.); john.adgate@ 123456ucdenver.edu (J.L.A.); KELSEY.BARTON@ 123456ucdenver.edu (K.E.B.)
                [3 ]Department of Geography and Division of Epidemiology, The Ohio State University, 1036 Derby Hall, 154 North Oval Mall, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; root.145@ 123456osu.edu
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: shelly.miller@ 123456colorado.edu ; Tel.: +1-303-492-0587
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2733-695X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2147-5278
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1271-3465
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1967-7551
                Article
                Publisher ID: ijerph-16-03535
                DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16193535
                PMC ID: 6801919
                PubMed ID: 31546585
                SO-VID: 29698c24-ec2b-4dc5-80b6-e3a6603b92b8
                Copyright © © 2019 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 04 August 2019
                Date accepted : 18 September 2019
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: low-cost sensors,black carbon,pm2.5,infiltration,energy efficiency,traffic-related air pollution,wildfire smoke
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: low-cost sensors, black carbon, pm2.5, infiltration, energy efficiency, traffic-related air pollution, wildfire smoke

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