A pandemic was expected. Yet, as Mami Mizutori, Head of the UNISDR, states, “past
warnings of a pandemic were often ignored, despite mounting evidence…” [1]. At first
glance, Early Warning Systems (EWS) developed for volcanic, earthquake, tsunami and
flood hazards may seem inappropriate for diseases such as COVID-19. Unlike most environmental
hazards that require organised evacuation away from a crisis point, epidemics and
pandemics require people to stay put so as to cut off transmission routes. Rather
than protect themselves by moving away from danger, people must protect others through
their immobility. Yet, EWS are much more than simple systems that provide a siren
or warning to move. For EWS to be effective they must be embedded in an extensive
system of observation and communication that integrates different expert and policy
cohorts, thresholds or tipping points, communication mediums and iconographies, for
the provision of timely warnings to people with the aim of minimizing loss of life
and reducing the social and economic impacts of disasters. Well-known examples are
the Pacific Tsunami Early Warning Centre and the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last
Alert System (ATLAS). EWS are intended to convey risk levels in an easy to understand
format, ensure credibility and accountability, and help create transparency between
different stakeholders [2]. As complex yet efficient assemblages of people, protocols
and plans, EWS have been the subject of political as well as scientific experimentation
since 1949, and can provide evidenced ‘lessons learned’ on how to translate scientific
observations into alert systems as part of a pandemic response.
The rapid spread of the virus SARS-CoV-2 and associated COVID-19 disease has demonstrated
that local, national, and international warning systems for pandemics are woefully
underdeveloped. Five years ago the UN member states extended the definition of risk
to include biological hazards, adopting the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction,
driven by countries that had experienced disease epidemics from strains of Ebola,
MARS, and SARS. One of the framework’s seven global targets is to substantially increase
the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning systems and disaster
risk information and assessments by 2030. Yet across recent documents - the WHO’s
2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV), Strategic Preparedness and Response Plan (2020)
[3], the Global Preparedness Monitoring Board report A World at Risk (2019) [4], the
International Working Group on Financing Preparedness’ report From Panic and Neglect
to Investing in Health Security (2017) [5], and the International Health Regulations’
The Joint External Evaluation Tool (2016) [6] - the term ‘warning’ is only mentioned
twice.
Despite the Sendai Framework, only 81 countries have a national strategy for disaster
risk reduction, and few of these reference pandemic threats. By contrast, throughout
the 1990s and 2000s the UN held a number of EWS conferences on natural hazards resulting
in a number of publications [7,8]. Following the catastrophic 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami
the UN called for the development of a global EWS for all types of natural hazards
for all communities. Thieren [9] argues that if an EWS were in place when the tsunami
struck the Indian Ocean region, an estimated 230,000 deaths in eleven countries could
have been prevented. In March 2005, the UN ISDR Platform for the Promotion of Early
Warning (PPEW) undertook a global survey to identify existing capacities and gaps
in EWS research, comprising of EWS conferences conducted in over 23 countries with
20 international agencies (UN ISDR PPEW, 2006) and culminating in the report Global
Survey of Early Warning Systems [10]. The report advocated that EWS should comprise
of diverse activities spanning four key elements: risk knowledge, monitoring and warning
service, dissemination and communication, and response capability.
It is too late to develop a cross-border, standardised EWS for the first wave of COVID-19,
but it is vital that a forensic analysis on how this crisis emerged includes an assessment
of the variable successes in warning systems adopted by countries. Of particular note
is the New Zealand COVID-19 Alert Level System [11]. New Zealand is relatively well
prepared for natural hazards with numerous alert level systems in place for volcanoes,
tsunami, and weather hazards. A similar set of protocols underpins its COVID-19 alert
system. This comprises four colour-coded alert levels - prepare, reduce, restrict,
and lockdown - providing clear guidance on the risk assessment, and the range of measures
in place. Each alert level has specific outcomes, summaries, and measures for public
health, personal movement, travel and transport, gatherings, public venues, health
and disability care services, workplace, and education so that there is clarity in
what can and cannot be conducted at each alert level. The guidance provided can be
updated based on new scientific information, or the effectiveness of control measures
(both in New Zealand, and overseas), but this new information will be subsumed into
the existing EWS. New Zealand successfully transitioned to Alert Level 3 ‘Restrict’
on Monday 27th April for a minimum of two weeks [12], and an evaluation of the cases
of COVID-19 will provide insights into the success of the measures in place and the
effectiveness of this system.
On 24th April, members of the Welsh government stated they wanted to implement a traffic
light system following initial lockdown [13]. Red, amber, and green are commonly adopted
in EWS designs for natural hazards due to their ease of understanding, but do constrain
the number of levels to 3. Following this, the UK announced its COVID-19 Alert Levels
on 10th May, also adopting a traffic light system; this is closely linked to the UK
Terrorism Threat Levels [14]. Other countries are considering copying New Zealand’s
epidemic EWS, with key commentators in the USA also advocating for a warning system
based on their colour-coded Homeland Security Model. Andy Slavitt, for example, the
former Acting Administrator of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services appointed
by President Obama, argues: “We’re going to need to find a way to communicate [threats
and appropriate behaviors] as they come and go, and we need a national standard” and
that the US needs to “develop a color coded system like we did after 9-11 to indicate
safety levels and restrictions while we get to a vaccine” [15]. Whilst a vaccine-based
solution that can lessen the spread of the disease is vital, this will take time,
and future waves need to be managed effectively over potentially long time scales.
Building a warning system to address these needs requires bringing together expertise
from all areas of disaster management, beyond the fields of epidemiologists and mathematicians,
so to establish and manage effective EWS for the government bodies that will use it
to trigger protocols. In our interconnected world, pandemic EWS, moreover, will be
needed beyond the current COVID-19 crisis.
Clearly pandemics unfold differently as disasters to eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis
and floods. They have different monitoring (or ‘sentinel’) systems in place that deal
with complex sociomedical data and emerging contexts. Furthermore, the behaviours
expected or required of individuals in times of crisis will be different. But, these
crises involve many of the same governmental organisations, industries, and deal with
the same publics as the now well established EWS rely on and target. EWS hinge on
a set of questions that are relevant to any disaster, such as:
•
How can a multi-scaled early warning system work, maintaining communication, accountability
and transparency across state and scientific agencies?
•
What combinations of text and iconographies work across traditional and social media
(Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp etc.) to indicate risk levels, and required or advised
actions?
•
What elements can be usefully standardised for international cooperation and cross-border
guidance, and what elements are usefully made contingent on local and regional narrative
tropes to more effectively communicate risk and guidance?
As more political administrations look to EWS to help mitigate future waves of COVID-19,
evidence-based considerations from the study of EWS and environmental hazards can
lay the ground for discussion. The key findings to be carried forward are as follows:
1.
Translation and multi-way communication is required to ensure that all involved in
designing and assigning alerts understand what information is credible and relevant
[16]. Common communication tools adopted to achieve this include cooperation plans,
protocols and procedures. But, these activities are themselves dependent upon everyday
dialogues between stakeholders via differing formats (social networking, internet,
phone), and the establishment of joint information centres, meetings, and workshops.
2.
Whilst alert level systems are used globally as a visual and text-based shorthand
system to convey concise and clear information to a wide range of people, scientific
uncertainties can make alert levels complicated to use. The decision to change an
alert level is challenging as often scientists encounter difficulties in interpreting
scientific data to establish what a hazard is doing, and that the decision to move
between alert levels is based upon a complex negotiation of perceived political, economic,
and environmental risks rather than the scientific data [17]. Warning systems are
complex and nonlinear and a consideration of different understandings of uncertainty
and risk is required for decision-making processes in assigning alert/warning [18].
3.
The standardisation of alert levels and early warning systems is vital to convey information
to a wide range of stakeholders. However, the process of standardisation is shaped
by social, political, and economic factors rather than in response to scientific needs
specific to a hazard; and standardisation is difficult to implement due to the diversity
and uncertain nature of hazards at different temporal and spatial scales [19]. EWS
need to be scalable and sufficiently flexible for use by local stakeholders via standardised
communication products designed to accommodate local contingency, while also adhering
to national/international policy.