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Genetic divergence and the number of hybridizing species affect the path to homoploid hybrid speciation
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Publication date (Electronic):
12 September 2018
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National Academy of Sciences
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Significance
Hybridization can promote speciation, and examples of putative hybrid species have now been identified across the tree of life. However, we still know little about the conditions that are most conducive to hybrid speciation. We have used experimental evolution in fruit flies ( Drosophila) to show that both the genetic difference between hybridizing species and the number of hybridizing species affect the probability that hybrids evolve reproductive isolation from their parental species. Our results provide a systematic test of factors that affect homoploid hybrid speciation. Biologists will now be able to test the predictions that our experiments outline in naturally hybridizing species. These types of data hold the potential to greatly increase our understanding of hybridization’s role in generating biodiversity.
Abstract
Hybridization is often maladaptive and in some instances has led to the loss of biodiversity. However, hybridization can also promote speciation, such as during homoploid hybrid speciation, thereby generating biodiversity. Despite examples of homoploid hybrid species, the importance of hybridization as a speciation mechanism is still widely debated, and we lack a general understanding of the conditions most likely to generate homoploid hybrid species. Here we show that the level of genetic divergence between hybridizing species has a large effect on the probability that their hybrids evolve reproductive isolation. We find that populations of hybrids formed by parental species with intermediate levels of divergence were more likely to mate assortatively, and discriminate against their parental species, than those generated from weakly or strongly diverged parental species. Reproductive isolation was also found between hybrid populations, suggesting differential sorting of parental traits across populations. Finally, hybrid populations derived from three species were more likely to evolve reproductive isolation than those derived from two species, supporting arguments that hybridization-supplied genetic diversity can lead to the evolution of novel “adaptive systems” and promote speciation. Our results illustrate when we expect hybridization and admixture to promote hybrid speciation. Whether homoploid hybrid speciation is a common speciation mechanism in general remains an outstanding empirical question.
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Sensitive Detection of Chromosomal Segments of Distinct Ancestry in Admixed Populations
Alkes L. Price, Arti Tandon, Nick Patterson … (2009)
Introduction The identification of chromosomal segments of distinct continental ancestry in admixed populations is an important problem, with a wide range of applications from disease mapping to understanding human history. Early efforts to solve this problem used coarse sets of unlinked markers [1]–[3] and mostly focused on populations such as African Americans [4],[5] and Latinos [6]–[8] that admixed within the past approximately 10 generations. Applying this approach to more anciently admixed populations has led to ancestry predictions that are ambiguous at many loci [9]. However, methods based on coarse sets of markers do not take advantage of the much richer haplotype information available in genome-wide data. More recent methods have been designed to use data from genome-wide scanning arrays [10]–[12], but these methods do not fully model linkage disequilibrium (LD) in the ancestral populations. Thus, they do not capture all of the available information about ancestry, and can be far from optimal. Furthermore, unless a trimming step is applied to remove linked markers [11], unmodeled LD may cause systematic biases in estimated ancestry, leading to false-positive inferences of a deviation in ancestry at certain loci [13]. Here, we describe a haplotype-based method, HAPMIX, which applies an extension of the population genetic model of Li and Stephens [14] to the problem of local ancestry inference in populations formed by two way admixture. We apply the method to simulated mixtures of African and European chromosomes to show that the resulting local ancestry inference is exceedingly accurate in comparison to other methods, even in the case of ancient admixture in which the shorter ancestry segments are more difficult to infer. As expected from its use of an explicit population genetic model, HAPMIX makes more complete use of dense genome-wide data, producing more accurate results. We examine the sensitivity of local ancestry inference to a wide array of factors. We also explore the utility of HAPMIX for drawing inferences about both the ancestral populations and the date of admixture. We apply HAPMIX to 935 African American individuals genotyped at ∼650,000 markers. By studying a large set of individuals from an admixed population of high relevance to disease mapping, we validate the effectiveness of this method in a practical setting and specifically show that the ancestry estimates are not systematically biased within the limits of our resolution. To illustrate how the method can provide insights into the history of an anciently admixed population, we also apply HAPMIX to a data set of 29 individuals from the Mozabite population of northern Africa that were genotyped at ∼650,000 markers as part of the Human Genome Diversity Panel (HGDP) [15]. We show that the Mozabite have inherited roughly 78% ancestry from a European-related population and 22% ancestry from a population related to sub-Saharan Africans. Our analysis also shows that the Mozabite admixture has occurred over a period that began at least 100 generations ago (∼2,800 years ago), and that has continued into the present day. We are able to infer small, ancient, ancestry segments in the Mozabite, and we demonstrate that the segments show considerable drift relative to all the other HGDP populations, consistent with the historical isolation of the Mozabite population. Materials and Methods Ethics statement For the African American data, informed consent was obtained from each study participant, and the study protocol was approved by the institutional review board at either the Johns Hopkins University or Howard University. Overview of haplotype-based inference of local ancestry HAPMIX assumes that the admixed population being analyzed has arisen from the admixture of two ancestral populations, and that phased data are available from unadmixed reference populations that are closely related to the true ancestral populations (e.g. phased data from HapMap [16]). In theory, discrepancies between the reference populations and the true ancestral populations may lead to inaccuracies, but in practice HAPMIX is robust to this concern under a variety of realistic scenarios (see below). The central idea of the method is to view haplotypes of each admixed individual as being sampled from the reference populations: for example, haplotypes of an African American individual could be sampled from phased African and European chromosomes from HapMap. At each position in the genome, HAPMIX estimates the likelihood that a haplotype from an admixed individual is a better statistical match to one reference population or the other. A Hidden Markov Model (HMM) is used to combine these likelihoods with information from neighboring loci, to provide a probabilistic estimate of ancestry at each locus. The method allows transition at two scales. The small-scale transitions are between haplotypes from within a reference population, typically at a scale of every few tens of thousands of bases [14]. The large-scale transitions are between the reference populations, at a scale of up to tens of millions of bases for a recently admixed population such as African Americans. Figure 1 illustrates the method schematically. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000519.g001 Figure 1 Schematic of the Markov model we use for ancestry inference. The black lower line represents a chromosomal segment from an admixed individual, carrying a number of typed mutations (black circles). The underlying ancestry is shown in the bottom color bar, and reveals an ancestry change from the first population (red) to the second population (blue). The admixed chromosome is modeled as a mosaic of segments of DNA from two sets of individuals drawn from different reference populations (red and blue horizontal lines respectively) closely related to the progenitor populations for the admixture event. The yellow line shows how the admixed chromosome is constructed in terms of this mosaic. The dotted line above the bottom color bar shows the reference population being copied from along the chromosome – note that at most positions, this is identical to the true underlying ancestry, but with occasional “miscopying” from the other population (blue dotted segment occurring within red ancestry segment). Note also that switches between chromosomes being copied from, representing historical recombinations, are rapid (6 switches), while ancestry changes, representing recombination since admixture, are much rarer (1 switch). Finally, note that at most positions the type of the admixed chromosome is identical to that of the chromosome being copied from, but an exception to this occurs at one site, shown as a grey circle, and representing mutation or genotyping error. In our inference framework, we observe only the variation data for the admixed and reference individuals: the yellow line, and the underlying ancestry, must be inferred as the hidden states in a HMM. An important strength of HAPMIX is the way it analyzes diploid data from admixed individuals. A naïve way to use population genetic methods to infer ancestry would be to pre-process such a data set using phasing software, and then to assume that this guess about the underlying phased haplotype is correct. However, phase switch errors that arise from this procedure (which are common even with the best phasing algorithms [17],[18]) would inappropriately force the method to infer ancestry transitions. HAPMIX circumvents this problem by not assuming that any one haplotype phase solution is correct. Instead, it uses a built-in phasing algorithm, similar to that of [17], which allows it to average inferences about ancestry over all possible phase solutions within each admixed individual. We treat the reference populations as fully phased, partly because in some cases, e.g. African and European chromosomes from HapMap, this phasing uses unambiguous trio information and is therefore highly accurate. More importantly, we expect our approach to be robust to errors in phasing in the reference populations, because these are unlikely to force inappropriate ancestry switches, in contrast to phasing errors in the admixed data itself. HAPMIX is also notable in inferring probabilities for whether an individual has 0, 1, or 2 alleles of a particular ancestry at each locus. As our simulations show, these estimates are well-calibrated. Thus, when the method generates a probability p for an individual being heterozygous for ancestry at a locus, they are in fact heterozygous approximately this proportion of the time. A well-calibrated probability of ancestry at each locus is important for a variety of applications, and also allows us to evaluate the robustness of the results. HAPMIX is fundamentally different from existing methods such as ANCESTRYMAP and LAMP [1],[11]. ANCESTRYMAP applies a Hidden Markov Model to unlinked SNPs to model ancestry transitions, while LAMP computes a majority vote of ancestry information using windows of unlinked SNPs, but neither of those methods makes use of haplotype information. Another method for investigating admixture segments, HAPAA, has recently been published [19]. In common with HAPMIX, the HAPAA software uses a Hidden Markov Model to model linkage disequilibrium within populations, and infers ancestry segments. However, there are also a number of important differences between our model and that used by HAPAA. First, unlike HAPAA, we allow for some rate of miscopying of ancestry segments from the “wrong” population, which we have found greatly improves our ancestry estimation (instead of this, the HAPAA software uses a post-hoc “filtering” of inferred segments, which removes all segments of size below a certain minimum threshold). Second, we fully allow for unphased data in our model, while the HAPAA approach requires a prior phasing of the data, and then attempts to account for the effect of phase-flip errors on ancestry inference via a heuristic procedure. We believe that these features of HAPMIX are likely to be critical in unraveling older admixture events, where ancestry segments are much shorter. A final advantage of HAPMIX over HAPAA is that it is designed to produce accurate estimates of uncertainty in inferred segments, even for old admixture events. Details of haplotype-based inference of local ancestry Modeling genetic variation in admixed populations Our approach to inferring ancestry segments, implemented in HAPMIX, is based on extending a Hidden Markov Model (HMM) previously developed by Li and Stephens to model linkage disequilibrium in population genetic data [14]. This model has been employed in recent years in various population genetic and disease mapping settings [20],[21]. Informally, given a previous collection of “parental” haplotypes from a reference population, a new “offspring” haplotype drawn from the same population is modeled as a mosaic of these existing haplotypes. This offers a flexible means to account for local linkage disequilibrium (LD), because over short distances, the haplotype that an individual chromosome copies from is unlikely to change. We extend the Li and Stephens model to allow inference on ancestry segments for individuals drawn from an admixed population. We begin by supposing that we have two previously sampled collections of phased haplotypes, P 1 and P 2, taken from two reference populations. For example, HapMap provides phased haplotypes from the CEU, YRI and JPT+CHB populations genotyped at over 3 million markers [16]. We further assume that P 1 and P 2 have valid data at all sites of interest, with no missing data. In practice, small amounts of missing data in the reference populations can be filled in by a pre-processing imputation step, as has been done for the publicly available phased HapMap data. We label P 1 and P 2 as “parental” haplotypes. Next, we sample a new “offspring” haplotype from an admixed population. We assume that this population is created from a single admixture event between two populations which are genetically similar to the two reference populations from which P 1 and P 2 are drawn. (The reference populations do not need to exactly match the true ancestral populations, because we allow for some genetic divergence in our approach.) We will initially consider the case where we have haploid chromosomes from the admixed population, and subsequently generalize to the more typical case involving unphased genotype data from the admixed population. Throughout this section, we operate in units of genetic (not physical) distance. We begin by modeling the ancestry segments. Assume the admixture event occurred at a single time T generations ago, with a fraction μ 1 of the haplotype's ancestry drawn from population 1, and μ 2 = 1−μ 1 from population 2. Because recombination occurs at each generation, it is natural to model ancestry switches as a Poisson process along the genome [22], at a rate T per unit of genetic distance (i.e. T per Morgan). Conditional on the positions of such switches, each segment is independently drawn from population 1 or 2 with probabilities μ 1, μ 2 respectively. In particular, this implies that not all ancestry switch points will actually change the underlying ancestry. This model has been previously used by other authors [1],[22]. Since ancestry cannot be directly observed, it is natural to view underlying ancestry status as the “hidden” information in an HMM. Our approach probabilistically infers this hidden state at each position along a chromosome. To fully specify our model, we must consider the structure of variation conditional on these admixture segments. Our model remains computationally tractable while accommodating important features typical of real data such as mutation, recombination, genotyping error, reference populations that are drifted from the true ancestral populations, and incomplete sampling of diversity in the reference populations reflected in the samples drawn from these populations. We assume that all mutant sites take the form of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with two alleles that can be represented as 0 and 1 (however, our approach could be extended to more complex mutation models). We suppose that sections of the genome with true ancestry from population 1 are formed as mosaics of the haplotypes in the two parental groups. Specifically, at any given position with this ancestry, an individual from P 1 is copied with probability, and an individual from population P 2 is copied with probability (we call this the “miscopying” parameter for population 1). Conditional on the parental group chosen, individuals to copy from are chosen uniformly from the n 1, n 2 respective individuals in that group. Switches between individuals occur as a Poisson process with rate ρ 1, the “recombination” parameter, and at each switch point a new copy individual is chosen randomly using the above scheme. Finally, at genotyped SNPs, if the “offspring” copies a “parent” population 1, the offspring carries an identical type to the particular parent it copies from with probability (1−θ 1), and carries the other type with probability θ 1, the “mutation” parameter. If the offspring instead copies an individual from the other population 2, the corresponding mutation parameter is θ 3. In total this approach leads to 4 additional parameters: p 1, ρ 1, θ 1 and θ 3. For sections of the genome with ancestry from population 2, we formulate our model in an analogous way, with corresponding parameters p 2, ρ 2, θ 2 and θ 3. We note that θ 3 is shared for both populations, a choice that is motivated by a genealogical argument, and has the aim of keeping the total number of parameters manageable. In total, our model has 9 independent parameters: T, μ 1, p 1, p 2, ρ 1, ρ 2, θ 1, θ 2 and θ 3. Some additional remarks about the interpretation of these parameters may be useful. As in the original Li and Stephens implementation, ρ 1 and ρ 2 relate to historical recombination parameters. In our parameterization, these parameters depend on both the effective population sizes of the relevant populations, and the sample sizes n 1 and n 2 drawn from these populations. Although they are not merely a simple function of these quantities, informal coalescent-based arguments suggest that they will decrease roughly linearly with n 1 and n 2, and increase roughly linearly with the effective population sizes of the reference populations [14]. In general, because the amount of historical recombination depends on effective population size, we do not expect ρ 1 = ρ 2, even if n 1 = n 2. The mutation parameters θ 1, θ 2 and θ 3 allow for both historical mutation and genotyping error. The miscopying parameters p 1 and p 2 allow similar “fuzziness” in the group copied from within ancestry segments. If , ancestry segments corresponding to population 1 must copy individuals from population 1, and similarly for population 2. However, setting these parameters equal to zero is likely to lead to spurious ancestry breaks, and therefore misestimation of ancestry segments, for at least two reasons. First, because we only sample a finite number of parental chromosomes, incomplete lineage sorting can occur. In some parts of the genome, the offspring chromosome is expected to have a deep coalescence time with the ancestors of the “correct” parental sample, and may instead coalesce first with an ancestor of the other parental sample – and therefore choose a descendant of this ancestor, in the “wrong” parental sample, to copy from. Second, if our reference populations are somewhat inaccurate relative to the true ancestral populations, again it is likely that incomplete lineage sorting will occur, even if our “parental” samples are both large. For these reasons, in practice we believe that incorporating non-zero miscopying parameters is important, and in both real data and simulation we find that it greatly improves our ancestry estimation procedure. Because our miscopying parameter is designed to allow for regions in the genome where the offspring chromosome has an unusually deep coalescence time with the other sample members, allowing the “miscopying” to occur, miscopied regions are likely to have unusually deep genealogies. Therefore, we allow a different mutation rate θ 3 for such segments, which is typically expected to be higher than θ 1 or θ 2. It might also be desirable to allow a higher recombination rate in such cases. However, this would result in computational complexities, and we have chosen not to allow such an additional parameter. For a typical application of HAPMIX, we expect to have data from a collection of discrete typed sites. Suppose we have S such sites, and in addition a map giving the genetic distances r1 ,r2 ,…r(S−1) between adjacent pairs of sites. In practice, we interpolate these distances from the genome-wide recombination rates estimated using Phase II HapMap [16]. Given the above parameters, and for a haploid admixed chromosome, we formalize the transition probabilities as follows. A (hidden) state for position s is represented by a triplet (i,j,k) where i = 1 or 2 represents ancestry drawn from population 1 or population 2, j = 1 or 2 records the population the chromosome copies from at position s (j may be different from i due to miscopying) and k represents the individual from which the chromosomal segment is copied. There are 2(n1 +n2 ) possible states. Let be the probability of transitioning from state (i,j,k) to state (l,m,n) between adjacent sites s and (s+1). Then we have the following: (0.1) Conditional on the underlying hidden state, let denote the probability of the offspring chromosome being of type 1 at site s, and tjk be the type of parental individual k in reference population j. Then (0.2) This probability allows us to calculate the likelihood of the observed data in the offspring for each possible underlying state. At sites with missing data in the offspring chromosome, the appropriate likelihood contribution is simply 1.0. Choices of parameter settings Choices of T and μ 1 are specific to each application (see below). However, many of the remaining parameters were fixed in all analyses of both simulated and real data. As discussed above, it is natural to scale ρ 1 and ρ 2, as well as θ 1 and θ 2, by the numbers of parental individuals n1 , n2 , respectively. Our code is parameterized so this is done internally – arbitrarily labeling the European population as ancestral population 1, we used recombination parameters ρ 1 = 60,000/n1 per Morgan for the European ancestral population and ρ 2 = 90,000/n2 per Morgan for the African ancestral population (with ρ 2>ρ 1 reflecting the larger effective population size of Africans). Further, we set θ 1 = 0.2/(0.2+n1 ) and θ 2 = 0.2/(0.2+n2 ), and θ 3 = 0.01 (this parameter remains unscaled). Finally, we used miscopying parameters p 1 = p 2 = 0.05. These values were arrived at via a process of trial and error, based on the results of inferring parameters via the EM algorithm. We have implemented an EM algorithm approach to parameter estimation that can infer any subset of the HAPMIX input parameters, or all simulataneously (see Text S2). This EM approach to parameter inference is currently only implemented for haploid data from the admixed population, but we applied it to haploid data derived from a phasing of diploid data, obtained by running HAPMIX on diploid admixed samples and using the software to sample random state paths. This approach might be applied to diploid samples more generally, and could be potentially be iterated, by updating phasing based on new parameter sets. However, based on our simulations we believe that for many applications – for example whenever the software is applied to African American data - it will be sufficient to vary T and μ 1 and fix the remaining parameters at the values described above. Inferring probabilistic ancestry segments and sampling from the posterior with HAPMIX It is easy to see that equations (0.1) and (0.2) describe a HMM for the underlying state (which includes information on ancestry) as we move along the genome, and that the underlying Markov process is reversible. Given a set of parameters we can exploit these properties and HAPMIX implements standard HMM techniques to efficiently infer posterior probabilities of underlying states, via the forward-backward algorithm, or sample random state paths from the correct joint posterior distribution, using a standard modification of this algorithm. In addition to parameter values, the software takes as input a recombination map for the regions to be analyzed, phased “parental” chromosomes from the two reference populations, and “offspring” data from the admixed population being analyzed. A naïve implementation of the forward/backward algorithm would require computation time proportional to 4S(n1 +n2 )2, in the above notation. For the original Li and Stephens model, it is possible to reduce computation time substantially by using the fact that many pairs of transition probabilities between states are identical, which allows terms to be collapsed in the forward (or backward) algorithm, into expressions involving a single term that is shared among all destination states. Calculating this shared term just once per pair of adjacent sites, and then storing, saves substantial computational effort [14]. Analogously, in our somewhat more complicated setting we can exploit a similar phenomenon, so that by calculating and storing a somewhat larger number of shared terms – one for each group of states of the form (i,j), giving four in total - HAPMIX can complete the forward/backward algorithm in time proportional to 2S(n1 +n2 ) (with an additional scaling constant). It is straightforward to extend our approach to allow imputation of missing data, while simultaneously labeling underlying ancestry, in an analogous manner to methods employed in several existing approaches to imputation for samples drawn from panmictic populations [20],[21]. We will describe this extension, and its application to disease mapping, in a separate paper. Multiple individuals from the admixed population Typically, we actually have multiple “offspring” samples (either haploid chromosomes or diploid genotypes, see below) from the admixed population of interest. For the analyses in this paper, we used HAPMIX to analyze data from each sample independently, using the same parental chromosomes in each case. Although in principle improvements to ancestry inference could result from considering the problem in multiple samples jointly, there are formidable computational challenges in adapting our approach to allow this (one possibility might be to employ MCMC, as used for unlinked sites [22],[23]). To avoid these complications, we simply model each admixed sample independently, following [21]. Under this scheme, separate HAPMIX runs for each sample enable effective parallelization of the software. Diploid genotype data from the admixed population Typically, real data consists of unphased genotypes for individuals drawn from a population, with haplotypic phase unknown. Many approaches already exist to infer phase from such data [17],[18]. However, phase switch errors that inevitably result from applying such algorithms are likely to result in spurious ancestry switches within regions of the genome where an individual is heterozygote for ancestry. This would likely lead to considerable overestimation of the time since admixture and a reduction in the accuracy of ancestral inference. To avoid such issues, we have extended our approach to directly analyze diploid genotype data from the admixed population. The phasing is implemented using a HMM adapted from that described above (0.1) and employing a composite hidden state at each location, of the form (i1 ,j1 ,k1 ,i2 ,j2 ,k2 ) where (i1 ,j1 ,k1 ) represents the previously defined “haploid” hidden state for the first chromosome, and (i2 ,j2 ,k2 ) represents the hidden state for the second chromosome. The state space therefore now has dimension 4(n 1+n 2)2. Allowing independent transitions between the marginal states for each chromosome, the terms in (0.1) now naturally define an HMM for these composite states (for reasons of space, we do not explicitly list all of the transition probabilities in the model here). This model could have up to 18 parameters – in our implementation, for natural biological reasons we assume all parameters are shared between chromosomes, apart from time since admixture T and admixture proportion μ 1, resulting in 11 parameters in total. Further, although our software allows these two parameters to differ, in all applications considered here we specify T and μ 1 to be the same for each chromosome. Emission probabilities are also adapted from the haploid case. For genotype data, there are 3 possible emissions at typed sites, which we denote as genotypes g = 0, 1, or 2, with g counting copies of the “1” allele. Conditional on the underlying hidden state, let denote the probability of observing genotype g given underlying state (i,j,k,l,m,n), and define tjk as before to be the type of parental individual k in reference population j. Then using (0.2) (0.3) where and are as defined above. Having defined the HMM for this setting, we again use standard techniques to obtain posterior probabilities on (joint) ancestry for the two chromosomes, and then sample states from this posterior distribution. We note that as a by-product of sampling complete states jointly for the two chromosomes together, we are phasing the original data with respect to the underlying ancestry. This may help reduce phasing error rates in admixed populations compared to methods that ignore local ancestry, although we do not pursue this issue here. We can adapt the computational speedups described above to the diploid setting, so that while a naïve implementation of the forward algorithm would take time proportional to 16S(n 1+n 2)4, we can complete the forward/backward algorithm in time proportional to 4S(n 1+n 2)2. A further speedup for the diploid setting is described in Text S2. With these speedups implemented, the running time of HAPMIX is roughly 30 minutes on a single processor per diploid genome analyzed (519,248 sites). Because the computations can be parallelized across admixed individuals (they can also be parallelized across chromosomes), HAPMIX is computationally tractable even for very large data sets if a cluster of computing nodes is available. For example, the running time for a data set of 1,000 admixed individuals on a cluster of 100 nodes is roughly 5 hours. Measuring the performance of HAPMIX Estimate of r 2 between predicted and true ancestry Irrespective of whether the true ancestry is known (as in simulations) or unknown (as in real data), an estimate of the r 2 between a predicted ancestry vector Y and true ancestry X can be computed. Within an individual, at each site s, a natural measure of predicted ancestry is the expected number Y s of haplotypes from one of the two source populations. If HAPMIX provides accurate ancestry probabilities, the true number of haplotypes from this population, X s , can be thought of as an unknown random variable which is equal to 0, 1, or 2 with probabilities p 0, p 1, p 2 specified by the ancestry predictions. We are interested in how correlated the predicted ancestry Y and true ancestry X are, over samplings from this distribution of the true ancestry X. A natural way to estimate this correlation is to calculate the expected squared correlation between X and Y, which we may approximate using a ratio of means: where the variances and covariances are taken over loci and individuals, and the expectations over samplings of the ancestry X. The expected covariance between predicted and true ancestry is then the mean value of the covariance between X and Y as we sample ancestry paths at different loci and in different individuals. At our single locus, we have E(XsYs ) = (p 1+2p 2)2 and E(Xs ) = E(Ys ) = p 1+2p 2. By separately averaging these three expectations across loci and individuals, we can then calculate analytically. Similarly, we can calculate the variance of Y, and the expected variance of X, across loci and different individuals, in a similar way. Combining these variances with the covariance to estimate correlation, and then squaring, we obtain a measure of the level of certainty of the ancestry predictions. Actual r 2 between predicted and true ancestry In simulated data sets where the true ancestry is known, the estimated r 2 between predicted and true ancestry (which is computed using ancestry predictions only) can be compared to the actual r 2 between these quantities (comparing ancestry predictions to true ancestries specified in simulations). As we confirm in what follows, the estimates of r 2 are well calibrated. Simulations Simulations of local ancestry inference We simulated individuals of admixed African and European ancestry by constructing their genomes from a mosaic of real Yoruba and French individuals genotyped on the Illumina 650Y chip as part of the Human Genome Diversity Panel (HGDP) [15]. We downloaded data from 20 Yoruba and 20 French individuals from the HGDP data set and jointly phased them using the fastPHASE program [18] to form 40 haploid Yoruba and 40 haploid French genomes. We constructed 40 haploid admixed genomes (n = 1 to 40) from the 40 haploid Yoruba and 40 haploid French genomes by using haploid Yoruba genome n and haploid French genome n to construct admixed genome n, so that ancestral genomes were never reused. To construct an admixed genome, we began at the first marker on each chromosome and sampled French ancestry with probability α and Yoruba ancestry with probability 1-α. Ancestry was resampled based on an exponential distribution with weight λ (the number of generations since admixture) so that a new ancestry was sampled with probability 1−e−λg when traversing a genetic distance of g Morgans. Each time ancestry was resampled, we sampled French ancestry with probability α and Yoruba ancestry with probability 1-α. For each individual, we used a value of α to apply to the entire genome by sampling from a beta distribution with mean 0.20 and standard deviation 0.10 (typical for African Americans [4]). We simulated values of λ = 6 (typical for African Americans [4]) as well as higher values of λ: 10, 20, 40, 60, 100, 200 and 400. Pairs of haploid admixed individuals were merged to form 20 diploid admixed individuals. It is important to distinguish between the true ancestry proportion α in a simulated or real admixed individual and the parameter μ 1 used as input to HAPMIX, which may differ from α (if α is unknown). Similarly, it is important to distinguish between the true number λ of generations since admixture and the parameter T used as input to HAPMIX. Below we explore the consequences of inaccurately specifying the parameters μ 1 and T. The reference populations used as input to HAPMIX consisted of 60 YRI individuals (120 haploid chromosomes) and 60 CEU individuals (120 haploid chromosomes) from the International HapMap Project [16]. A joint analysis of HGDP and HapMap data indicated that F ST(Yoruba,YRI) = 0.000 and F ST(French,CEU) = 0.001, so that the reference populations used as input to HAPMIX were extremely accurate. All HAPMIX simulations were restricted to 519,248 autosomal markers present in HGDP data which were polymorphic in phased YRI and phased CEU data from HapMap. For comparison purposes, we ran the ANCESTRYMAP, and LAMP-ANC programs on the same simulated data sets, making use of diploid YRI and CEU genotype data from HapMap and restricting all input data to subsets of markers that were unlinked in the reference populations, as recommended by those methods [1],[11]. For the ANCESTRYMAP runs, we chose a subset of 20 ancestry segments, we note that the genetic map used as input to the software has total length 35.5 Morgans. For an individual with admixture proportion α, we expect to observe a fraction 2α(1-α) of all recombination events occurring since admixture (i.e. those that result in a change in ancestry). Given λ generations since admixture, we therefore expect to see a total of 142 λ α(1-α) events in a diploid individual. Estimating α using the observed genome-wide ancestry proportion μ for that individual, if N ancestry transitions are observed, then a natural moment estimator of the number of generations since admixture is We excluded 3 clear outlier individuals who had more than 20 inferred generations of admixture, because we believe this is likely to indicate partial ancestry from a third source population in these individuals. Analysis of 29 Mozabite samples We analyzed 29 Mozabite samples from the HGDP data set. A total of 30 Mozabite individuals were originally genotyped as part of the HGDP, but one individual (HGDP01281) was excluded due to cryptic relatedness. We ran HAPMIX on the 29 Mozabite individuals using YRI and CEU as the input reference populations. We inferred the number of generations since admixture that provided the best fit to the data, and computed F ST values between the inferred ancestral segments and the reference populations (YRI and CEU), as described above for the African American data set. Analysis of other HGDP populations We ran HAPMIX on a total of 13 populations from the HGDP data that were of African, European, or Middle Eastern ancestry. For each population, we used YRI and CEU as the input reference populations, and estimated the European-related mixture proportion. For populations with European-related ancestry that was estimated to be more than 0% and less than 100%, we also estimated the number of generations since mixture. Web resources The HAPMIX software is available for downloading at the following URL: http://www.stats.ox.ac.uk/~myers/software.html. Results Simulations Simulations of local ancestry inference We began by examining the performance of HAPMIX in a set of 20 simulated admixed individuals, with an average of 80% African ancestry and 20% European ancestry, and generated with admixture occurring 6 generations ago (λ = 6; see Materials and Methods). These parameters were chosen to be in the range of typical values for African Americans. We implemented a simulation framework in which admixed individuals were constructed using genotype data from the Human Genome Diversity Project, but modeled using reference populations from HapMap (see Materials and Methods). We compared the local ancestry estimates produced by HAPMIX (probabilities of 0, 1, or 2 copies of European ancestry) to the true values of local ancestry that were simulated. These simulation results suggest that our method is likely to provide near optimal ancestry reconstruction in African Americans: the squared correlation between predicted and true number of European copies (across all samples) was equal to 0.98, and discernment of ancestry transitions was extremely sharp, as seen in a plot of the predicted vs. true number of European copies for an admixed sample on chromosome 1 (Figure 2A). For comparison purposes, we also computed local ancestry estimates using the ANCESTRYMAP and LAMP-ANC programs [1],[11] (see Materials and Methods). (We chose not to explicitly compare HAPMIX to additional recently developed methods such as SABER, LAMP, uSWITCH and uSWITCH-ANC [10]–[12] , because in previous work the LAMP-ANC method—which we do compare HAPMIX to—has been shown to perform approximately as well as each of those methods in a range of scenarios [11].) The squared correlation between predicted and true number of European copies was equal to 0.86 for ANCESTRYMAP, 0.83 for LAMP-ANC and discernment of ancestry transitions was less sharp or sometimes missed entirely (Figure 2A). 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000519.g002 Figure 2 Comparison of ancestry estimates produced by HAPMIX, ANCESTRYMAP, and LAMP-ANC. (A) Results comparison for a simulated recently admixed sample on chromosome 1. On each plot, the y-axis denotes the number of European chromosomal copies predicted by each method. The centromere of the chromosome is blanked out in white. The top plot shows the true number of European chromosomes, while the subsequent labeled plots show the results of applying each respective method. (B) Results comparison for a real African American individual across chromosome 1. Plots are constructed as in (A). We note the visible similarity to the simulation results. A more challenging setting for ancestry inference is when admixture occurs further back in time, resulting in smaller ancestry segments. We therefore repeated the above comparisons with increasing lambda (Figure 3). The results show a uniformly better performance by HAPMIX relative to the other two methods, with the comparative advantage of HAPMIX increasing with time since admixture. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000519.g003 Figure 3 Accuracy of HAPMIX, ANCESTRYMAP, and LAMP-ANC predictions for various values of λ, the number of generations since admixture. For each admixture time, results are based on analyzing 20 admixed individuals, simulated using an average genome-wide proportion of 80% African and 20% European ancestry. For each method, we plot the squared correlation between predicted and true number of European copies as a function of λ. To investigate whether the probabilities of 0, 1, or 2 copies of European ancestry reported by HAPMIX are well-calibrated, we binned the predicted probabilities into bins of size 0.05 and compared, for each x = 0,1,2 and for each bin, the average predicted probability vs. the actual frequency in simulations of having x copies of European ancestry. For example, in the λ = 6 simulation, restricting to instances in which the predicted probability of 1 copy of European ancestry was between 0.05 and 0.10, the average predicted probability of 1 copy of European ancestry was 0.07 and the true frequency of 1 copy of European ancestry was 0.08, which is close to 0.07. More generally, we observed that HAPMIX predictions from our λ = 6 and λ = 100 simulations were well calibrated for each value of x = 0,1,2 (Figure 4). The calibration of intermediate bins appears visually worse for the λ = 6 simulation; however, the proportion of the genome that is in the most extreme bins where the method is certain is 98%, 97%, 99%, for x = 0,1,2 in these simulations, and hence the reliability of the probabilities remains good for recently admixed populations too. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000519.g004 Figure 4 Properties of HAPMIX. (A) For simulated admixed data sets, constructed as described in Materials and Methods using λ = 6 and λ = 100, we plot the r 2 between predicted and true number of European chromosomal copies, as a function of the number of markers genotyped across the genome. (B) The same as part A, except we now fix the number of markers genotyped at 500,000, and vary the number of input chromosomes used to predict ancestry (for full details, see text). (C) Calibration of uncertainty estimates produced by HAPMIX. For the λ = 6 simulations, and for each of x = 0, x = 1, and x = 2 we compare the average probability of x copies of European ancestry predicted by HAPMIX to the true frequency of having x copies of European ancestry, binning the predicted probabilities of x copies of European ancestry into bins of size 0.05. If the method were perfectly calibrated, the results would lie along the line y = x (thin black line). Note that for λ = 6, ancestry is normally inferred with high certainty, and over 98% of data points fall into the most extreme two bins. (D) The same as part A, except using λ = 100. Both the last two plots show reasonable calibration of HAPMIX. We also used the HAPMIX predictions to compute an estimate of the squared correlation between predicted and true #European copies (see Materials and Methods). We obtained estimates of 0.98 for the λ = 6 simulation and 0.83 for the λ = 100 simulation, which are identical to the true r 2 values of 0.98 for λ = 6 and 0.83 for λ = 100, consistent with the finding that HAPMIX predictions are well calibrated. Although most of our simulations focused on individuals of mixed African and European ancestry, we also considered a more general set of two-way mixtures of African, European, Chinese and/or Japanese populations. We again observed that HAPMIX outperformed other methods (see Text S1). Furthermore, although HAPMIX is currently implemented assuming only two reference populations, we were able to attain accurate results in a more complex scenario of three-way admixture, by running HAPMIX in a two-way mode using different choices of reference populations (see Text S1). Simulations of local ancestry inference using inaccurate reference populations In many real-world settings, the true reference populations for a particular admixture event may not have had suitable genetic data gathered, or may no longer exist. To test for the effect of this situation on HAPMIX, we repeated our simulations at λ = 6 and λ = 100 using 20 admixed samples that were simulated using Mandenka and Basque individuals but modeled using reference populations YRI and CEU, which are inaccurate reference populations (see Materials and Methods). For λ = 6, the squared correlation between predicted and true #European copies remained high at 0.95, only marginally worse than the 0.98 obtained using accurate reference populations. For λ = 100, the squared correlation was 0.76, again only slightly worse than the 0.83 obtained using accurate reference populations. In short, the effects of these levels of inaccuracy in the reference populations (F ST = 0.01) are relatively small. We also repeated our simulations at λ = 6 and λ = 100 using 20 admixed samples that were simulated using Yoruba and Druze but modeled using reference populations YRI and CEU, (see Materials and Methods). The squared correlation between predicted and true number of European copies was 0.97 at λ = 6 and 0.79 at λ = 100, as compared to 0.98 and 0.83 using accurate reference populations. Thus, HAPMIX is robust to rather inaccurate (F ST = 0.02) reference populations, and to the asymmetric case where only one reference population is inaccurate. Simulations of local ancestry inference as a function of data size and parameter settings We investigated how the accuracy of HAPMIX varies with data size, by varying either the number of markers or the number of reference chromosomes, in our λ = 6 and λ = 100 simulations (see Materials and Methods). Accuracy as a function of the number of markers is displayed in Figure 4A, which shows that as few as 50,000 random markers are close to optimal for λ = 6 but that hundreds of thousands of markers are needed to produce optimal results in the more challenging case where λ = 100. Accuracy as a function of the number of reference chromosomes is displayed in Figure 4B, which shows that as few as 40 chromosomes (phased from 20 diploid samples) from each reference population are close to optimal. We also investigated how the accuracy of HAPMIX is affected when the parameters used as input are inaccurately specified (see Materials and Methods). Results of our simulations in which the genome-wide ancestry proportion μ 1 was inaccurately specified (different from the value α used to simulate the data) are displayed in Table 1. We observed that even if μ 1 is very inaccurate (e.g. by a factor of 4), there is no effect on results for λ = 6 and only a minimal effect (which primarily affects the genome-wide average of HAPMIX ancestry estimates, but not their correlation with true ancestry) for λ = 100. Results of our simulations in which the number of generations T since admixture was inaccurately specified (different from the value λ used to simulate the data) are displayed in Table 2. We observed that even if T is very inaccurate (e.g. by a factor of 2 to 5), there is no effect on results for λ = 6 and only a minimal effect for λ = 100. Thus, HAPMIX appears to be extremely robust to parameter misspecification. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000519.t001 Table 1 HAPMIX accuracy as a function of ancestry proportion parameter. μ 1 λ = 6 simulated data: r2 (αaverage) λ = 100 simulated data: r2 (αaverage) 0.05 0.98 (0.20) 0.82 (0.18) 0.10 0.98 (0.20) 0.83 (0.19) 0.20 0.98 (0.20) 0.83 (0.20) 0.40 0.98 (0.20) 0.83 (0.21) 0.80 0.98 (0.20) 0.83 (0.22) We list both the r 2 between true and inferred ancestry, and the genome-wide average α avg of HAPMIX ancestry estimates, as a function of the parameter μ 1 used as input to HAPMIX, for data simulated at λ = 6 and λ = 100. Results for HAPMIX runs in which the ancestry proportion was specified correctly are underlined. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000519.t002 Table 2 HAPMIX accuracy as a function of date of admixture parameter. T r 2 for λ = 6 simulated data r 2 for λ = 100 simulated data 2 0.98 n/a 4 0.98 n/a 6 0.98 0.68 8 0.98 0.72 10 0.98 0.77 20 0.98 0.81 40 0.97 0.83 100 0.94 0.83 200 n/a 0.83 400 n/a 0.80 We list the r 2 between true and inferred ancestry as a function of the parameter T used as input to HAPMIX, for data simulated at λ = 6 and λ = 100. Results for HAPMIX runs in which the date of admixture was specified correctly are underlined. We did not attempt runs in which T differs from the correct date of admixture by a factor of >20. Inference of ancestral populations We are interested in applying HAPMIX to improve our understanding of ancestral populations contributing to admixture events. To explore the usefulness of the software for this purpose, we analyzed segments of inferred African or inferred European ancestry from our λ = 6 and λ = 100 simulations to investigate how closely they corresponded to the true ancestral populations used to simulate admixed individuals (see Materials and Methods). We chose to use F ST, a commonly applied summary statistic, to quantify differences between the inferred and actual ancestral populations. In the λ = 6 simulations using Yoruba and French ancestral populations, which closely match the YRI and CEU reference populations, the F ST values between segments of inferred ancestry and the corresponding ancestral populations were equal to 0.001, indicating a tight correspondence (Table 3). The λ = 100 simulations produced a similarly tight correspondence (Table 3), even though values of local ancestry could only be inferred with moderate accuracy (Figure 3). The correspondence between inferred ancestral segments and true ancestral populations remained reasonably tight even when the true ancestral populations (either Mandenka and Basque, or Yoruba and Druze) were inaccurately modeled by the reference populations (YRI and CEU) used for inference (Table 3). Thus, HAPMIX shows promise for reconstructing ancestral populations that are somewhat different from available reference populations. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000519.t003 Table 3 Inference of ancestral populations. trueAFR trueEUR λ F ST(inferredAFR,trueAFR) F ST(inferredEUR,trueEUR) Yoruba French λ = 6 0.001 0.001 Yoruba French λ = 100 0.000 0.003 Mandenka Basque λ = 6 0.000 0.003 Mandenka Basque λ = 100 0.001 0.003 Yoruba Druze λ = 6 0.000 0.006 Yoruba Druze λ = 100 0.001 0.007 For admixed samples simulated at λ = 6 and λ = 100 from an ancestral African population (trueAFR) and an ancestral European population (trueEUR), we report the value of F ST between segments of African ancestry (inferredAFR) or European ancestry (inferredEUR) inferred by HAPMIX and the true ancestral populations. Although the correspondence between inferred ancestral segments and true ancestral populations is reasonably tight, it is not perfect, with F ST values as large as 0.007 between inferred European segments and the European ancestral population in the Yoruba/Druze simulations (Table 3). Interestingly, the European population with this high F ST value contributed only 20% of the ancestry on average in our simulations. We hypothesized that rare erroneous ancestral segments might be having a disproportionate effect on F ST estimation for this group, particularly at sites where only a few simulated individuals really had ancestry from the Druze, where errors might dominate. Consistent with this idea, when we restricted our analysis to only positions where we inferred at least 5 chromosomes from the European population, results were considerably more accurate (F ST = 0.004 for λ = 100 and F ST = 0.003 for λ = 6). Also consistent with this hypothesis, when we repeated the Yoruba/Druze simulations with 50% European ancestry, results were considerably more accurate (0.001 or less for all F ST values corresponding to Table 3, for both λ = 6 and λ = 100 and for both European and African segments). Thus, although greater potential for inaccuracy exists in the inference of segments of an ancestral population which on average contributes only a small number of chromosomes to the admixed sample, there is hope of increasing accuracy in this context by appropriate filtering of results. Inference of date of admixture Our results show that supplying the correct value of the number of generations since admixture to HAPMIX has virtually no impact on the accuracy of inference of local ancestry (Table 2). Nonetheless, inferring the date of admixture remains an important aim for making inferences about history. We tested the effectiveness of HAPMIX in inferring the date of admixture by computing likelihoods at different values of T, using data that was simulated at λ = 6, λ = 20 and λ = 100 (see Materials and Methods). The highest likelihoods were obtained at T = 6, T = 17 and T = 75, respectively, with steep likelihood functions leaving little predicted uncertainty in these estimates. Thus, inference of date of admixture is imperfect—with a moderate bias towards underestimation for larger of values of λ—but still potentially useful. We also tried running HAPMIX to infer the date of admixture using data simulated under a double-admixture scenario (λ = 6∘100) (see Materials and Methods). This data set violates the model assumption of a single admixture event producing an exponential distribution of ancestry segment lengths. In this simulation, the highest likelihood was obtained at T = 45, intermediate between the true admixture times. In the context of multiple admixture events, the HAPMIX date estimate can be loosely interpreted as an estimate of the number of crossover events per unit of genetic distance that have occurred since admixture. We expect this estimate to lie within the time period spanned by the admixture events. Analysis of 935 African American samples We ran HAPMIX on 935 African American samples to obtain local ancestry estimates at each location in the genome (see Materials and Methods). Although the true number of European copies at each locus is unknown, the probabilities produced by HAPMIX provide an estimate of the squared correlation between predicted and true number of European copies (see Materials and Methods). Our estimate was r 2 = 0.98, which implies that HAPMIX can provide close to full power for admixture mapping of disease genes in African Americans. We also ran the ANCESTRYMAP and LAMP-ANC programs on these data [1],[11] (see Materials and Methods). Discernment of ancestry transitions was much sharper for HAPMIX compared to the other methods, as seen in a plot of number of European copies predicted by each method for an African American sample on chromosome 1 (Figure 2B). This is expected from our results on simulated data (Figure 2A). In addition to verifying that predictions are accurate on average, it is also important to check that there are no regions of the genome showing systematically inaccurate ancestry predictions. Such regions could produce spurious signals of selection after admixture in scans of control individuals, or spurious admixture association signals in scans of disease cases [13]. Because such scans examine the tail of the observed distribution, even a single region where results are biased could be a serious confounder. With this in mind, we computed the average ancestry across all samples for each locus in the genome, as predicted by either HAPMIX or ANCESTRYMAP, and then searched for unusual deviations. HAPMIX estimates ranged between 16% and 22% European ancestry, and ANCESTRYMAP estimates ranged between 16% and 21%, with a mean of 19% for both methods. These small deviations from the mean are not statistically significant (nominal P-value = 0.001 for the most extreme value over hundreds of independent loci) and can be attributed to sampling variation in the individuals analyzed. We used HAPMIX to estimate the value of λ (the number of generations since admixture) that provided the best fit to the African American data set by computing likelihoods at different values of T (see Materials and Methods). We obtained an estimate of λ = 7, which matches the value of λ = 7.0 inferred by ANCESTRYMAP on the same data, and is similar to the value of λ = 6.3 previously inferred by ANCESTRYMAP on other African American data sets [4]. We also used inferred segments of African or European ancestry to estimate F ST values between the true ancestral populations of African Americans and the two reference populations used here (YRI and CEU, as well as African and European populations from the HGDP) (see Materials and Methods). We obtained estimates of 0.001 for the F ST between the true African ancestral population and YRI, and 0.001 for the F ST between the true European ancestral population and CEU. This is consistent with estimates of F ST = 0.001 derived from the τ parameter inferred by ANCESTRYMAP on the same data (F ST = 0.5/τ), and consistent with our previous findings that YRI and CEU provide accurate reference populations for admixture analysis of African Americans [4],[25]. Correspondingly, among the HGDP populations the lowest F ST to the true African ancestral population was obtained for the Yoruba population (F ST = 0.0008). The Bantu South African, Mandenka and Bantu Kenya groups had the next lowest values (F ST 0.035. This supports a West African origin for the African ancestry segments in African Americans, in agreement with historical records. For the European ancestral population, the lowest F ST was with French (F ST = 0.0013) with Italian, Orcadian, Tuscan, Russian, Basque and Adygei then showing increasing values, but F ST 0% and <100%, we also inferred the number of generations since mixture. Discussion We have described a method that takes advantage of haplotype information to accurately infer segments of chromosomal ancestry in admixed samples, even in the case of ancient admixture. The method is likely to be useful both for disease mapping in admixed populations and for drawing inferences about human history, as our empirical analyses of samples from African American and HGDP populations have demonstrated. The ability to reconstruct chromosomal segments from ancestral populations that contributed to recent or ancient admixture is a particular advance, as it implies that genetic analyses need not be restricted to extant populations but can also be applied to populations that have only left admixed descendents today [28]. By reconstructing allele frequencies and haplotypes from these populations, extensions of HAPMIX may be able to learn about population relationships as they existed at the time of the Neolithic agricultural migrations or even before. An open question is how far back in time HAPMIX will be able to probe the histories of anciently admixed populations. The simulations of Figure 3 suggest that HAPMIX has power in theory to produce informative estimates of local ancestry even for populations that admixed 400 generations – over 10,000 years ago. HAPMIX has particularly important applications for disease gene mapping, especially in African Americans where the ancestry estimates are exceedingly accurate and where we have shown that they are not systematically biased. With the accurate estimates of ancestry that emerge from HAPMIX it should be possible to carry out dense case-control association studies with hundreds of thousands of markers, which simultaneously test for admixture association [1]–[3] and case-control association, providing more power to detect disease associations from the data than that can be obtained from either approach alone. While our analyses show that HAPMIX—because of its explicit use of a population genetic model—has better power to infer locus-specific ancestry than many recent methods, the method also has some limitations in the range of scenarios in which it can be used. For example, it is not currently designed for the analysis of mixtures of more than two ancestral populations, and it requires the use of reference populations. Future directions for extending the HAPMIX method include allowing more than two ancestral populations, using the admixed samples as a pool of reference haplotypes instead of relying on input haplotypes from reference populations, and automating the fitting of model parameters. In addition, although determining the number of generations since admixture with high accuracy is not necessary for effective inference of local ancestry, our results motivate additional work to enable detection of multiple admixture events at different points in time in order to refine the inferences that can be made about human history. Supporting Information Text S1 Supplementary note. (0.05 MB DOC) Click here for additional data file. Text S2 Appendix. (0.10 MB DOC) Click here for additional data file.
- Record: found
- Abstract: not found
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Patterns of Speciation in Drosophila
Jerry A Coyne, H. Allen Orr (1989)
- Record: found
- Abstract: found
- Article: not found
Rapid hybrid speciation in Darwin’s finches
B Grant, Sangeet Lamichhaney, Peter Grant … (2017)
Homoploid hybrid speciation in animals has been inferred frequently from patterns of variation, but few examples have withstood critical scrutiny. Here we report a directly documented example from its origin to reproductive isolation. An immigrant Darwin’s finch to Daphne Major in the Galápagos archipelago initiated a new genetic lineage by breeding with a resident finch (Geospiza fortis). Genome sequencing of the immigrant identified it as a G. conirostris male that originated on Española >100km from Daphne. From the second generation onwards the lineage bred endogamously, and despite intense inbreeding, was ecologically successful and showed transgressive segregation of bill morphology. This example shows that reproductive isolation, which typically develops over hundreds of generations, can be established in only three.
Author and article information
Journal
Journal ID (nlm-ta): Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
Journal ID (hwp): pnas
Journal ID (pmc): pnas
Journal ID (publisher-id): PNAS
Title:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
Publisher:
National Academy of Sciences
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(Print):
0027-8424
ISSN
(Electronic):
1091-6490
Publication date
(Print):
25
September
2018
Publication date
(Electronic):
12
September
2018
Publication date PMC-release: 12
September
2018
Volume: 115
Issue: 39
Pages: 9761-9766
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Author notes
1To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email:
dmatute@
123456email.unc.edu
.
Author information
Aaron A. Comeault
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3954-2416
Article
Publisher ID: 201809685DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1809685115
PMC ID: 6166845
PubMed ID: 30209213
SO-VID: 2afdeee1-a924-441e-b518-dbeadbe904de
Copyright © Copyright © 2018 the Author(s). Published by PNAS.
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This open access article is distributed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License 4.0 (CC BY-NC-ND).
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Pages: 6
Funding
Funded by: HHS | NIH | National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS)
100000057
Award ID: R01GM121750
Award Recipient
: Daniel R Matute
Categories
Subject:
Biological Sciences
Subject:
Evolution
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