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Abstract

A current issue in the research of augmentation of brain functions using transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) is the diversity and inconsistency in outcome results. Similar studies often report different results, depending on the parameters and tasks used. Such inconsistencies have led to significant doubts about the efficacy of the method in the broader scientific community, despite its promising potential for patient recovery and treatment. Evidence on the large variability in individual cortical excitability and response to tES suggests that stimulation may affect individuals differently, depending on the subject’s age, gender, brain state, hormonal levels, and pre-existing regional excitability. Certain factors might even lead to the reversal of polarity-dependent effects, and therefore have crucial implications for neurorehabilitation and cognitive enhancement. Research paradigms may have to be refined in the future to avoid the confounding effects of such factors.

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Most cited references 86

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Roberto Cabeza (2002)

A model of the effects of aging on brain activity during cognitive performance is introduced. The model is called HAROLD (hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults), and it states that, under similar circumstances, prefrontal activity during cognitive performances tends to be less lateralized in older adults than in younger adults. The model is supported by functional neuroimaging and other evidence in the domains of episodic memory, semantic memory, working memory, perception, and inhibitory control. Age-related hemispheric asymmetry reductions may have a compensatory function or they may reflect a dedifferentiation process. They may have a cognitive or neural origin, and they may reflect regional or network mechanisms. The HAROLD model is a cognitive neuroscience model that integrates ideas and findings from psychology and neuroscience of aging.

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The study of synaptic plasticity and specifically LTP and LTD is one of the most active areas of research in neuroscience. In the last 25 years we have come a long way in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying synaptic plasticity. In 1988, AMPA and NMDA receptors were not even molecularly identified and we only had a simple model of the minimal requirements for the induction of plasticity. It is now clear that the modulation of the AMPA receptor function and membrane trafficking is critical for many forms of synaptic plasticity and a large number of proteins have been identified that regulate this complex process. Here we review the progress over the last two and a half decades and discuss the future challenges in the field. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Front Syst Neurosci

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Front Syst Neurosci

Journal ID (publisher-id): Front. Syst. Neurosci.

Title: Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience

Publisher: Frontiers Media S.A.

ISSN (Electronic): 1662-5137

Publication date (Electronic): 24 February 2014

Publication date Collection: 2014

Volume: 8

Electronic Location Identifier: 25

Affiliations

[1]Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford Oxford, UK

Author notes

Edited by: Mikhail Lebedev, Duke University, USA

Reviewed by: Peter B. Reiner, University of British Columbia, Canada; Marom Bikson, The City College of New York of The City University of New York, USA

*Correspondence: Beatrix Krause, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Tinbergen Building, 9 South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3UD, UK e-mail: beatrix.krause@ 123456psy.ox.ac.uk

This article was submitted to the journal Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience.

Article

DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00025

PMC ID: 3932631

PubMed ID: 24605090

SO-VID: 2c48f22d-6a5e-4189-a84c-4c627c13ab74

License:

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

History

Date received : 27 November 2013

Date accepted : 05 February 2014

Page count

Figures: 1, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 111, Pages: 12, Words: 11633

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Not all brains are created equal: the relevance of individual differences in responsiveness to transcranial electrical stimulation

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