Omega-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Intake by Ethnicity, Income, and Education Level in the United States: NHANES 2003–2014

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Abstract

Although there are many recognized health benefits for the consumption of omega-3 (n-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA), intake in the United States remains below recommended amounts. This analysis was designed to provide an updated assessment of fish and n-3 LCPUFA intake (eicosapentaenoic (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and EPA+DHA) in the United States adult population, based on education, income, and race/ethnicity, using data from the 2003–2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) ( n = 44,585). Over this survey period, participants with less education and lower income had significantly lower n-3 LCPUFA intakes and fish intakes ( p < 0.001 for all between group comparisons). N-3 LCPUFA intake differed significantly according to ethnicity ( p < 0.001), with the highest intake of n-3 LCPUFA and fish in individuals in the “Other” category (including Asian Americans). Supplement use increased EPA + DHA intake, but only 7.4% of individuals consistently took supplements. Overall, n-3 LCPUFA intake in this study population was low, but our findings indicate that individuals with lower educational attainment and income are at even higher risk of lower n-3 LCPUFA and fish intake.

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Maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood (ALSPAC study): an observational cohort study.

Joseph Hibbeln, John M Davis, Colin D. Steer … (2007)

Seafood is the predominant source of omega-3 fatty acids, which are essential for optimum neural development. However, in the USA, women are advised to limit their seafood intake during pregnancy to 340 g per week. We used the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) to assess the possible benefits and hazards to a child's development of different levels of maternal seafood intake during pregnancy. 11,875 pregnant women completed a food frequency questionnaire assessing seafood consumption at 32 weeks' gestation. Multivariable logistic regression models including 28 potential confounders assessing social disadvantage, perinatal, and dietary items were used to compare developmental, behavioural, and cognitive outcomes of the children from age 6 months to 8 years in women consuming none, some (1-340 g per week), and >340 g per week. After adjustment, maternal seafood intake during pregnancy of less than 340 g per week was associated with increased risk of their children being in the lowest quartile for verbal intelligence quotient (IQ) (no seafood consumption, odds ratio [OR] 1.48, 95% CI 1.16-1.90; some, 1.09, 0.92-1.29; overall trend, p=0.004), compared with mothers who consumed more than 340 g per week. Low maternal seafood intake was also associated with increased risk of suboptimum outcomes for prosocial behaviour, fine motor, communication, and social development scores. For each outcome measure, the lower the intake of seafood during pregnancy, the higher the risk of suboptimum developmental outcome. Maternal seafood consumption of less than 340 g per week in pregnancy did not protect children from adverse outcomes; rather, we recorded beneficial effects on child development with maternal seafood intakes of more than 340 g per week, suggesting that advice to limit seafood consumption could actually be detrimental. These results show that risks from the loss of nutrients were greater than the risks of harm from exposure to trace contaminants in 340 g seafood eaten weekly.

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Effect of DHA supplementation during pregnancy on maternal depression and neurodevelopment of young children: a randomized controlled trial.

Maria Makrides, Robert A. Gibson, Andrew J. Mcphee … (2010)

Uncertainty about the benefits of dietary docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for pregnant women and their children exists, despite international recommendations that pregnant women increase their DHA intakes. To determine whether increasing DHA during the last half of pregnancy will result in fewer women with high levels of depressive symptoms and enhance the neurodevelopmental outcome of their children. A double-blind, multicenter, randomized controlled trial (DHA to Optimize Mother Infant Outcome [DOMInO] trial) in 5 Australian maternity hospitals of 2399 women who were less than 21 weeks' gestation with singleton pregnancies and who were recruited between October 31, 2005, and January 11, 2008. Follow-up of children (n = 726) was completed December 16, 2009. Docosahexaenoic acid-rich fish oil capsules (providing 800 mg/d of DHA) or matched vegetable oil capsules without DHA from study entry to birth. High levels of depressive symptoms in mothers as indicated by a score of more than 12 on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale at 6 weeks or 6 months postpartum. Cognitive and language development in children as assessed by the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition, at 18 months. Of 2399 women enrolled, 96.7% completed the trial. The percentage of women with high levels of depressive symptoms during the first 6 months postpartum did not differ between the DHA and control groups (9.67% vs 11.19%; adjusted relative risk, 0.85; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.70-1.02; P = .09). Mean cognitive composite scores (adjusted mean difference, 0.01; 95% CI, -1.36 to 1.37; P = .99) and mean language composite scores (adjusted mean difference, -1.42; 95% CI, -3.07 to 0.22; P = .09) of children in the DHA group did not differ from children in the control group. The use of DHA-rich fish oil capsules compared with vegetable oil capsules during pregnancy did not result in lower levels of postpartum depression in mothers or improved cognitive and language development in their offspring during early childhood. anzctr.org.au Identifier: ACTRN12605000569606.

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Impact of sustainable feeds on omega-3 long-chain fatty acid levels in farmed Atlantic salmon, 2006–2015

M. Sprague, J.R. Dick, D.R. Tocher (2016)

As the global population and its demand for seafood increases more of our fish will come from aquaculture. Farmed Atlantic salmon are a global commodity and, as an oily fish, contain a rich source of the health promoting long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids. Replacing the traditional finite marine ingredients, fishmeal and fish oil, in farmed salmon diets with sustainable alternatives of terrestrial origin, devoid of EPA and DHA, presents a significant challenge for the aquaculture industry. By comparing the fatty acid composition of over 3,000 Scottish Atlantic salmon farmed between 2006 and 2015, we find that terrestrial fatty acids have significantly increased alongside a decrease in EPA and DHA levels. Consequently, the nutritional value of the final product is compromised requiring double portion sizes, as compared to 2006, in order to satisfy recommended EPA + DHA intake levels endorsed by health advisory organisations. Nevertheless, farmed Scottish salmon still delivers more EPA + DHA than most other fish species and all terrestrial livestock. Our findings highlight the global shortfall of EPA and DHA and the implications this has for the human consumer and examines the potential of microalgae and genetically modified crops as future sources of these important fatty acids.

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Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Nutrients

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Nutrients

Journal ID (publisher-id): nutrients

Title: Nutrients

Publisher: MDPI

ISSN (Electronic): 2072-6643

Publication date (Electronic): 09 July 2020

Publication date Collection: July 2020

Volume: 12

Issue: 7

Electronic Location Identifier: 2045

Affiliations

[1 ]Department of Pediatrics, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA; caleb.cave@ 123456unmc.edu (C.C.); alanders@ 123456unmc.edu (A.A.-B.); maranda.thompson@ 123456unmc.edu (M.T.)

[2 ]College of Public Health, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA; nickahein@ 123456gmail.com (N.H.); lmsmith@ 123456unmc.edu (L.M.S.); karlstessy.bisselou@ 123456unmc.edu (K.S.B.); adams.kusiappiah@ 123456unmc.edu (A.K.A.)

[3 ]Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; richterck@ 123456email.arizona.edu (C.K.R.); skulasray@ 123456email.arizona.edu (A.C.S.-R.)

[4 ]Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; pmk3@ 123456psu.edu

[5 ]Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA

[6 ]College of Allied Health Professions, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA; ckhanson@ 123456unmc.edu

Author notes

[* ]Correspondence: Tara.Nordgren@ 123456medsch.urc.edu (T.M.N.); melissak.thoene@ 123456unmc.edu (M.T.); Tel.: +1-951-827-3148 (T.M.N.); +1-402-559-4347 (M.T.)

Author information

Caleb Cave https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4829-6122

Chesney K. Richter https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5658-6173

Melissa Thoene https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8554-0708

Article

Publisher ID: nutrients-12-02045

DOI: 10.3390/nu12072045

PMC ID: 7400855

PubMed ID: 32660046

SO-VID: 2ee44a0e-6474-4b7a-9c39-795d69924462

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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Omega-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Intake by Ethnicity, Income, and Education Level in the United States: NHANES 2003–2014

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Most cited references 32

Maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood (ALSPAC study): an observational cohort study.

Effect of DHA supplementation during pregnancy on maternal depression and neurodevelopment of young children: a randomized controlled trial.

Impact of sustainable feeds on omega-3 long-chain fatty acid levels in farmed Atlantic salmon, 2006–2015

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